Construction surety contract bond underwriting risk evaluation

Introduction Finance has been the subject of global market confusion and unremitting controversies with matters of greater public and private concern facing unending challenges due to incompetent policies and regulations governing financial affairs.Advertising We will write a custom thesis sample on Construction surety contract bond underwriting risk evaluation specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The unprecedented hard economic epoch of the recent decades has hit the financial market, thus affecting operations of numerous companies globally through constantly augmenting defaults and losses (Ramsey 43). Generally, one of the worldwide industries that have constantly suffered from financial crises and the related risks is the global construction industry where million of losses occur not only from the economic circumstances, but also due to unrelenting misfortunes that mar industrial growth. In a bid to protect contractors from the ris ing financial risks that have become more eminent in the current decades, financial institutions are becoming proactive in providing risk transfer mechanisms in the form of surety. Despite decades of surety guarantees by corporations in the United States, little remains known to the public about surety. Therefore, this study explores construction surety bond underwriting risk evaluation. Synopsis of a construction surety contract The financial business world has grown exponentially for decades and become the most responsive industry that constantly provides substantial aid to other industries on risk related affairs. By operating slightly akin to the insurance firms, corporate sureties have emerged stronger in supporting risk related industries including the construction companies by providing surety bonds. In simple terms as defined by CNA Surety, â€Å"surety bonds are three party instruments by which one party guarantees or promises a second party the successful performance of a third party† (1). These three parties or principles involved in the surety bonding include a surety (any financial institution), a principal (contractor) and an Obligee (owner) (Seifert 47). Surety bonds involved in construction or bonding construction companies are contract surety bonds. Obviously, construction is a challenging and risky business that possibly can result into huge losses to constructors and owners is not well handled. Construction surety bonds typically prevent owners from financial and resource related risks that likely occur during project construction.Advertising Looking for thesis on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In its broadest understanding, construction surety bonds normally provide assurance to Obligee or project owners that contractors are capable of performing or completing the project on due time, within the stipulated budget and in the desired design requirements (McI ntyre and Strischek 30). On the same note, construction surety bonds are capable of assuring the venture owners that the contractor will complete the project and pay all the specified subcontractors, material suppliers and manual workers as expected (McIntyre and Strischek 30). Research has identified three common forms of construction surety bonds namely bid bonds, performance bonds and the payment bonds that are common in a large construction spectrum. A bid bond is a construction surety bond that provides financial assurance that the contract is for good will, in desired price and required performance and payment bonds. Performance bond provides â€Å"the owner with protection against financial loss in a circumstance where contractor fails to complete the project and meet terms and conditions of the contract., while payment bond ensure that the constructor makes all payments to suppliers, subcontractors and laborers† (Jenkins and Andrew 2). Background to the U.S. construct ion surety industry Perhaps the United States stands out to be among the most advanced countries that have integrated systems to protect innocent civilians from malicious service providers, including malevolent project managers and contractors. The U.S. construction surety industry has expanded exponentially in the current decades and its history and background is long, and its fate has been a mixture of success and failure (McIntyre and Strischek 31). The U.S construction surety industry premiered centuries ago and financial corporations have been offering surety bonds for quite a while, before the government decided to intervene as a service-consumer protection intervention.Advertising We will write a custom thesis sample on Construction surety contract bond underwriting risk evaluation specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More According to Surety Information Office (1), the year 1893 saw the U.S government, through Miller Act Section 2 70a, placing a legal mandate to all contactors on public works contracts to acquire surety bonds that guaranteed their constancy in undertaking projects and masking dully payments to all subcontractors and suppliers on project completion. The importance of getting into construction agreements and contracts began at this moment. By the U.S. Government imposing Miller act, one significant issue emerged from this rule. According to Surety Information Office (1), â€Å"the Miller Act (40 U.S.C. Section 270a) requires performance and payment bonds for all public work contracts in excess of $100,000 and payment protection, with payment bonds the preferred method, for contracts in excess of $25,000.† In subsequent moments, approximately fifty American States, including Puerto Rico and District of Columbia began enacting this act. Since this enactment, corporate financial institutions initiated massive campaigns of attracting contractors in such business activities by making the sure ty industry quite a competitive sector throughout 1990s when the American economy thrived. Under the strong economy, the contractors remained busy and with minimal failures until the entire world began experiencing economic crunches. Unfortunately, the profitable bonding business became more overwhelming and centered attention for new entrants into surety leading to excess and gratuitous competition within the surety industry that has finally remained shaky 2000 due to high-profile corporate failures. Principles of Premiums and losses While trying to understand underwriting of surety bonds in the construction industry, premiums and losses are two financial terminologies associated with underwriting of surety bonds. The U.S surety bonds, similar to the insurances, have premium and loss terminologies, which represent certain fees. Unlike the insurance premium, surety premium refers to service fee or service charge determined based on anticipated losses (Grovenstein et al. 356). Losses are unforeseen financial risks that may result from contractors failing to complete the project as per expectations, or even other uncertainties related to project construction.Advertising Looking for thesis on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In the case where the surety industry considers risks from the construction company are unpleasant, the financial institution, which is normally the surety, may have to deem a number of alternatives. According to contract bonding principles, McIntyre and Strischek affirm that some of the alternative that assists in minimizing loss chances in sureties is raising premium charges, raising deductibles, reducing bond coverage, intensify underwriting standards or even quite completely from the bonding deal (30).. Perceived significance of surety contract bonding Since the advent of surety contracting and bonding into the U.S federal public works, much has protracted that has led to surveyors considering the imperativeness of surety contract bond underwriting. Surety bonding is a process that involves risk sharing through a business-integrated program that involves several mutual terms and conditions for all the three parties involved (Jenkins and Andrew 1). In actuality, there is no bette r or rather practical alternative of defending the private and the public against financial loss. On the other hand, financial institutions depend on public and private sectors to generate revenues for their survival. Surety bonding on construction favors all the three principals in the contracting deal (Dunn and Sedgwick 15). For the owner, protection from financial loss, safety of the construction and smooth progress of the project is what becomes major benefits in due completion of the project (Ramsey 42). Three contract surety bonds have been supportive in assisting Obligee in undertaking their projects successfully b considering the success of the bonding. The owner believes that the bid bond, the performance bond and the payment bond are core movers to the success of the project. McIntyre and Strischek assert, â€Å"Surety bonds assure project owners that contractors will perform the work and pay specified subcontractors, laborers, and material suppliers in accordance with th e contract documents† (30). The contractors (principals) also rely on the surety contract bond underwriting in a number of ways that may deem significant while undertaking their contracting process. During the underwriting process, the contractor feels assured of owner’s cooperation in terms of payment as cases of exploiting contractors seem outdated since the financial institutions scrutinizes owners financial capacity comprehensively. Since the surety corporations have the financial stamina to cover any improprieties resulting from Obligee, the contractor feels assured of getting all the stated pay (Dunn and Sedgwick 15). The surety or the guarantors who are large financial institutions normally receive a financial benefit and commercial reputation over the surety industry since premiums have the potential of chaining the corporate improvement of the firms. Essential information for underwriting a contract bond Underwriting a contract bond has been a quandary for the three parties, with both of them having worries over the successfulness of bonding and the fate of the project under construction. As noted by Glaser, Piskorski, and Tchistyi â€Å"mortgage underwriters face a dilemma: either to implement high underwriting standards and underwrite only high quality mortgages or relax underwriting standards in order to save on expenses† (186). All parties involved in undertaking the contract bonding must observe several parameters before concluding on ways to undertake the surety bonding. During the process, the corporate sureties are normally at higher risks since they are responsible for monitoring and assessing the capabilities of the two parties in the contract bonding (Sacks and Ignacio 46). Nonetheless, it is worthwhile that all the three principles consider seeking legal advice and embedding their bonding procedures through legal frameworks that likely reduces chances of uncertainties. The two (principals and surety) with their underwri ters and producers have the accountability to oversee all the procedures of the contracting process. What contractors and their producers must know Subsequent to a comprehensive coverage of all conditions, terms and procedure of signing the contract bonds, a greater responsibility rests upon the contractor companies and the surety companies as the owner waits in anticipation. As the surety depends on surety company underwriter to undertake a follow up on the contract and plan, the contractor company relies on the producer, who forms part contractor’s external advisory group. The producer is one of the integral players in the contractor’s advisory team and to avoid performance-related risks that may hamper completion of the contract the producer plays an important part. The contractors company must consider the following qualifications from the producer: the producer must be familiar with the local, provincial and national conditions and trends within the surety market. In addition, Ramsey (42) asserts that the producer must posses accounting and finance knowledge, respect and a reputation for integrity, knowledge of the contract law and their documents, substantial experience in management practices and strategic planning among other fundamental aspects. They must understand that the contracting business involving construction company is quite challenging and with numerous uncertainties. For any successful contracting company, understanding of business risks is imperative and this aspect aids in evaluating and assessing the kind of contract bonding that firms associate with during their operations. As suggested by Ramsey, â€Å"taking any and every job available is not a wise strategy† (44). A construction company must understand all the uncertainties including external construction risks as weather, natural hazards, material prices, or supplier’s inconveniences and owner’s-related risks, as well as internal risk like equipme nt failures, staff problems and capital fluctuations. This move is normally the best way of evaluating and managing their risks since it enlightens the company on the genuine projects to pursue and the contract bonds to sign. According to Fayek and Marsh (3764), the contractors must also rely on a sustainable legal expertise team that scrutinizes the owner’s financial potency, as it is normally a challenge for contractors to access data pertaining to owners financial and banking secrets that sureties have. What surety and their underwriters must consider In the context of undertaking the construction bonding process, the sureties that involve corporate financial institutions are the core movers and principals of contract bonding. Apart from the main surety in the bonding process, two actors as mentioned earlier are important in the process of surety contract bond underwriting: an underwriter and a producer, who form part of the entire process (Stevens 440). An underwriter is a professional who works directly for the surety company that has offered to provide bond and undertake the obligation. After a successful collection of the necessary information pertaining to the contract, the bond producer presents the information to the surety company underwriter, who is responsible for making a follow up of the plan for the surety company (Ramsey 44). The underwriter is the most integral person in the advisory team of the surety company. Ramsey) asserts, â€Å"The surety bond producer works with the surety company’s underwriter to ensure that the contractor is bondable and capable of performing the work and paying all parties† (44). In the context of underwriter’s duties, the following are the primary activities undertaken in underwriting by the surety company underwriter. Firstly, the underwriter has the accountability to determine if the contractor possesses the financial potency to support the contract all through. Secondly, the surety co mpany underwriter ensures that the contractor has a positive historical record of paying subcontractors and suppliers immediately (Ramsey 44). Finally, the surety company underwriter ensures that the contractor possesses a good rapport with the banks and other financial institutions. In simplest financial terms, underwriting standards of nowadays surety market emphasize on three important Cs representing capitals, capacity and character in the underwriting process and in understanding the contractor’s business. Since a surety bond acts as a bank credit in several ways, it is important for contractors to have a good reputation since contractors have a challenge of accessing debt capital (Seifert 49). The underwriter also peruses through the contractor’s fiscal year-end statements including balance sheets, cash flow statements, and income statements among others. The table below summarizes the contractor evaluation criterion. (Source: Fayek and Marsh 3766) Project speci fic risk factors affecting contract bond underwriting While trying to engage in the surety contract bonding and agreeing to the terms and conditions governing construction under contracts, the three parties especially the contractor in this case must understand the risks associated with contract bond underwriting. This element explains the reason why the bond producer is an integral actor in the surety contract bond underwriting process in defense of the contractor as this professional recommends an accountability line of consistency regarding the contractor’s competence. Two important forms of risks have been in constant discussions over the existence years of surety industry and contractor’s business, and these are project-specific related factors and performance-related risk factors. To begin with, a construction industry is a challenging field of professionalism as it associates with numerous risks (Cummins 28). As guarantors are currently targeting mega contractor s with large cumulative programs that are highly perilous, risk in itself is a unique issue and very few constructions complete successfully without encountering jeopardy. As postulated earlier, the underwriter examines the capital, capacity, and character of the contractor; nonetheless, the forth c has emerged in the recent studies that denote continuity. The continuity in the case of construction may remain hampered by uncertainties. Project specific risk factors are precarious issues that associate with the project itself and contractors are normally unaware of the unforeseen uncertainties. The project owners will always deem a project successful if the contractor manages to complete it within the stipulated time, designed budget and all other requirements (Grovenstein et al. 159). Project-specific related risk factors may involve natural catastrophes, delays in the supply chain or material deficiency, change in the material prices or even owners lack of cooperation. This aspect explains the reason behind the existence of payment bond that ensures that the owner’s project continues despite the failure of the contractor in paying sub-contractors, laborers, and suppliers (Vedenov, Epperson, and Barnett 450). Project-related risk factors, especially natural ones have been the most challenging to control in the surety bonding. Performance-related risk factors affecting contract bond underwriting Performance related risk factors are uncertainties affiliating with the incapability of contractors to complete the desired project in the requirements highlighted in the contract bonding agreement (Strischek 31). Within the tripartite bond agreement, the caution and worry here is upon the owner of the project under construction and more worse to the surety company. Some contractor’s performance faith has been questionable within the public and to ensure that contracts have remained successful through surety contract bond underwriting, the performance bond emerged (Seifert 48). While trying to understand the concept of performance related risk factors in the contracting process, management practices and strategic planning as contractor evaluation criterion emerged from this point. Performance in the context of surety contract bond underwriting refers to the contractor’s aptitude in completing the agreed project. Some of the common performance related factors may include the contractor’s management delinquency, poor or lack of business planning, lack of contract performance frameworks, project complexity as well as obstructing company philosophies and procedures, most of which are avoidable. How to make an appropriate bond underwriting decision The appropriateness and successfulness of any bond underwriting between the three parties depends on a number of issues that surety companies must always consider before making a decision into the bonding. â€Å"Sureties and bankers have much in common. McIntyre and Strischek pos tulate, â€Å"Both industries underwrite risk to contractors, and both have enjoyed the good time profits of the cycle’s expansion phase and suffered the losses during its contraction phase† (36). Therefore, analyzing risks involved in contract bonding becomes important. However, in certain circumstances, financial organizations have found themselves into the traps of fraudster and money swindlers who pretend to be contractors from reputable companies, leading to serious financial losses (Glaser, Piskorski, and Tchistyi 188). Despite the fact that there are very few decision-support models existing among financial institutions that are sureties and this aspect has resulted into numerous problems concerning contract bond underwriting (Stevens 456). As postulated earlier, corporate sureties should use a number of procedures in determining the probability of having attractive returns from a contract. Before making a decision to engage in any contract bonding practice with the other two parties, viz. the project owner and the contractor, numerous things appear significant for consideration. Before anything else, the financial institution must scrutinize owner’s financial capacity including his/her willingness to pay all expenses incurred in the project and his/her previous behavior with the bank or surety (Ramsey 44). In the beginning of the initial phase, the company must consider hiring or employing a competitive underwriter with appropriate knowledge in all forms of surety conditions, who will deal confidently with the contractor’s producer to avoid incurring financial losses. Bearing in mind that the financial institution will be taking all the liabilities and obligations for the owner, a legal advisory team must prevail to provide information and make all follow ups of the required legal procedures while undertaking the construction bonding (Grovenstein et al. 359). The financial organization must acquire proper background knowledg e and assess the previous character of the contractor on the earlier contracts and agreements. All documents concerning the contractor’s latest fiscal year-end statements must exist in this assessment to provide assurance that the contractor has been loyally paying all sub-contractors, laborers, and suppliers within the slated time. The financial institution, which is the corporate surety, must ensure that the underwriter assess â€Å"the contractor’s latest fiscal year-end statements by examining the accountants’ opinion to review the audit or compilations† (Ramsey 45). They should also assess balance sheet to evaluate the working capital, income statements to estimate gross profits from previous contracts as well as cash statements to appraise operating cash flow among other important construction bonding documents before deciding on the bond agreements (Seifert 49). On finalizing, the surety company underwriter must also consider analyzing the possible risk factors associated with the bonding and ensure they depend on a decision support model in their making their final agreement on the contract. Conclusion Conclusively, there has been substantial literature existing concerning surety bonding in the construction industry yet understanding important procedures in the construction bonding process has been a challenge. Surety companies are the most parties that are at a greater risk of failing in the surety bonding if proper securitization of the owner and the contractor’s intentions in the bonding deal are unknown. Sureties with successful transfer of construction risk have always considered the attractiveness of the risk transfers. Companies engaging in surety bonding normally target the jumbo rates in the premiums, which normally come from seriously risky ventures, and if proper caution lacks in making the appropriate decision in the bonding process, the sureties may be putting themselves into great financial uncertainties . Works Cited CNA Surety 2005, Surety ship: A practical guide to Surety Bonding. Web. Cummins, David. â€Å"Cat bonds and other risk-linked securities: state of the market and recent developments.† Risk Management and Insurance Review 11.1(2008): 23-47. Print. Dunn, Jonathan, Irvine Sedgwick. â€Å"Letters of Credit, Bonding, Guarantees and Default Insurance: Hedging Bets in a Roller-Coaster Market.† American Bar Association 15.2 (2013): 1-17. Print. Fayek, Aminah, and Krista Marsh. â€Å"A decision-making model for surety underwriters in the construction industry based on fuzzy expert systems.† Journal of Construction Engineering and Management 1.1 (2006): 3763-3772. Print. Glaser, Barney, Tomasz Piskorski, and Alexei Tchistyi. â€Å"Optimal securitization with moral hazard.† Journal of Financial Economics 104.2 (2012):186–202. Print. Grovenstein, Robert, Francis Sirmans, John Harding, Sansanee Thebpanya, Geoffrey Turnbull. â€Å"Commercial mortg age underwriting: How well do lenders manage the risks.† Journal of Housing Economics 14.2 (2005): 355–383. Print. Jenkins, Robert, and Wallace Andrew 2005, Construction Bonds: What Every Contractor and Owner Should Know. Web. McIntyre, Marla, and Dev Strischek. â€Å"Surety bonding in today’s construction market: changing times for contractors, bankers, and sureties.† The RMA Journal 87.8 (2005): 30-36. Print. Ramsey, Marc. â€Å"Surety Bond Producers and Underwriters.† The RMA Journal 91.8 (2009): 42-45. Print. Sacks, Arianna, and Correa Ignacio. â€Å"Underwriting: The Harvard Student Journal of Real Estate.† The Harvard student journal of real estate 1.1 (2011): 1-116. Print. Seifert, Bryan. â€Å"Sustainable Buildings and the Surety.† Real Estate Issues 33.3 (2008): 47-52. Print. Stevens, Glenn. â€Å"Evaluation of Underwriter Proposals for Negotiated Municipal Bond Offerings.† Public Administration Management: An Interact ive Journal 4.4 (1999): 435-468. Print. Strischek, Dev. â€Å"Underwriting and Monitoring Consideration in Lending to Contractors Today.† The RMA Journal 86.10 (2004):31-32. Print. Surety Information Office. n.d. 10 Things You Should Know About Surety Bonds. PDF file. Web. Vedenov, Dmitry, James Epperson, and Barry Barnett. â€Å"Designing Catastrophe Bonds to Securitize Systemic Risks in Agriculture: The Case of Georgia Cotton.† Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics 31.2 (2006): 318-338. Print. This thesis on Construction surety contract bond underwriting risk evaluation was written and submitted by user Sonia Sutton to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Clash of Civilizations essays

Clash of Civilizations essays The Clash of Civilizations, a theme whose very title connotes ambiguity and controversy. Samuel P. Huntington describes a civilization as the broadest level of cultural identity people have short of that which distinguishes humans from other species. This definition alone has been the subject of much debate as Huntington seems to perceive the nature of civilizations as somewhat stagnant and does not sufficiently address all the internal complexities they entail. The splintered structure of civilizations and main world religions and the existence of minorities belonging to more than one civilization are not adequately accounted for. Primarily Huntington hypothesizes that world politics is entering a new phase where the foremost basis of conflict will not be ideological or economic but rather cultural. Civilizations will clash and the fault lines which divide these civilizations will become the front lines of the future. Huntington sees that since the end of Cold War the dominant focus of international politics has become the relations of the West and non Western civilizations. Huntington identifies seven or eight major civilizations whose interactions will fundamentally plough the course of history. These include Western, Confusion, Japanese, Islamic, Hindu, Slavic-Orthodox, Latin American, and possibly African civilization. Huntington believes that the differences between civilizations are real, basic and the product of centuries unlikely to wane in the near future. The interactions between different civilizations are increasing and Huntington believes this must increase civilization consciousness and alertness of differences between civilizations. Huntington believes that these increased interactions enliven dissimilarities and animosities prevalent from distant history. He fails however to consider the possibility that these increased interactions, and enhanced civilization awareness may actually help to d...

Siege of Fort Stanwix in the American Revolution

Siege of Fort Stanwix in the American Revolution Siege of Fort Stanwix - Conflict Dates: The Siege of Fort Stanwix was conducted from August 2 to 22, 1777, during the American Revolution (1775-1783). Armies Commanders Americans Colonel Peter Gansevoort750 men at Fort StanwixMajor General Benedict Arnold700-1,000 men in relief force British Brigadier General Barry St. Leger1,550 men Siege of Fort Stanwix - Background: In early 1777, Major General John Burgoyne proposed a plan for defeating the American rebellion. Convinced that New England was the seat of the revolt, he proposed severing the region from the other colonies by advancing down the Lake Champlain-Hudson River corridor while a second force, led by Lieutenant Colonel Barry St. Leger, moved east from Lake Ontario and through the Mohawk Valley. Meeting at Albany, Burgoyne and St. Leger would advance down the Hudson, while General Sir William Howes army advanced north from New York City. Though approved by Colonial Secretary Lord George Germain, Howes role in the plan was never clearly defined and issues of his seniority precluded Burgoyne from issuing him orders. Siege of Fort Stanwix - St. Leger Prepares: Gathering near Montreal, St. Legers command was centered on the 8th and 34th Regiments of Foot, but also included forces of Loyalists and Hessians. To aid St. Leger in dealing with militia officers and the Native Americans, Burgoyne gave him a brevet promotion to brigadier general prior to embarking. Assessing his line of advance, St. Legers largest obstacle was Fort Stanwix located at the Oneida Carrying Place between Lake Oneida and the Mohawk River. Built during the French Indian War, it had fallen into disrepair and was believed to have a garrison of around sixty men. To deal with the fort, St. Leger brought along four light guns and four small mortars (Map). Siege of Fort Stanwix - Strengthening the Fort: In April 1777, General Philip Schuyler, commanding American forces on the northern frontier, became increasingly concerned about the threat of British and Native American attacks via the Mohawk River corridor. As a deterrent, he dispatched Colonel Peter Gansevoorts 3rd New York Regiment to Fort Stanwix. Arriving in May, Gansevoorts men began working to repair and enhance the forts defenses. Though they officially renamed the installation Fort Schuyler, its original name continued to be widely used. In early July, Gansevoort received word from friendly Oneidas that St. Leger was on the move. Concerned about his supply situation, he contacted Schuyler and requested additional ammunition and provisions. Siege of Fort Stanwix - The British Arrive: Advancing up the St. Lawrence River and onto Lake Ontario, St. Leger received word that Fort Stanwix had been reinforced and was garrisoned by around 600 men. Reaching Oswego on July 14, he worked with Indian Agent Daniel Claus and recruited around 800 Native American warriors led by Joseph Brant. These additions swelled his command to around 1,550 men. Moving west, St. Leger soon learned that the supplies Gansevoort had requested were nearing the fort. In an effort to intercept this convoy, he sent Brant ahead with around 230 men. Reaching Fort Stanwix on August 2, Brants men appeared just after elements of the 9th Massachusetts had arrived with the supplies. Remaining at Fort Stanwix, the Massachusetts troops swelled the garrison to around 750-800 men. Siege of Fort Stanwix - The Siege Begins: Assuming a position outside the fort, Brant was joined by St. Leger and the main body the next day. Though his artillery was still en route, the British commander demanded Fort Stanwixs surrender that afternoon. After this was refused by Gansevoort, St. Leger began siege operations with his regulars making camp to the north and the Native Americans and Loyalists to the south. During the first few days of the siege, the British struggled to bring their artillery up nearby Wood Creek which was blocked by trees felled by the Tryon County militia. On August 5, St. Leger was informed that an American relief column was moving towards the fort. This was largely composed of the Tryon County militia led by Brigadier General Nicholas Herkimer. Siege of Fort Stanwix - Battle of Oriskany: Responding to this new threat, St. Leger dispatched around 800 men, led by Sir John Johnson, to intercept Herkimer. This included the bulk of his European troops as well as some Native Americans. Setting an ambush near Oriskany Creek, he attacked the approaching Americans the next day. In the resulting Battle of Oriskany, both sides inflicted substantial losses on the other. Though the Americans were left holding the battlefield, they were unable to push on to Fort Stanwix. Though a British victory, it was tempered by the fact that Gansevoorts executive officer, Lieutenant Colonel Marinus Willett, led a sortie from the fort which attacked the British and Native American camps. In the course of the raid, Willetts men carried off many of the Native Americans possessions as well as captured many British documents including St. Legers plans for the campaign. Returning from Oriskany, many of the Native Americans were irate over the loss of their belongings and the casualties sustained in the fighting. Learning of Johnsons triumph, St. Leger again demanded the forts surrender but to no avail. On August 8, the British artillery finally deployed and began firing on Fort Stanwixs northern wall and northeastern bastion. Though this fire had little effect, St. Leger again requested that Gansevoort capitulate, this time threatening to turn loose the Native Americans to attack settlements in the Mohawk Valley. Responding, Willett stated, By your uniform you are British officers. Therefore let me tell you that the message you have brought is a degrading one for a British officer to send and by no means reputable for a British officer to carry. Siege of Fort Stanwix - Relief at Last: That evening, Gansevoort ordered Willett take a small party through the enemy lines to seek help. Moving through the marshes, Willett was able to escape east. Learning of the defeat at Oriskany, Schuyler resolved to send a new relief force from his army. Led by Major General Benedict Arnold, this column was composed of 700 regulars from the Continental Army. Moving west, Arnold encountered Willett before pressing on to Fort Dayton near German Flatts. Arriving on August 20, he wished to wait for additional reinforcements before proceeding. This plan was dashed when Arnold learned that St. Leger had begun entrenching in an effort to move his guns closer to Fort Stanwixs powder magazine. Unsure about proceeding without additional manpower, Arnold elected to use deception in an effort to disrupt the siege. Turning to Han Yost Schuyler, a captured Loyalist spy, Arnold offered the man his life in exchange for returning to St. Legers camp and spreading rumors about an impending attack by a large American force. To ensure Schuylers compliance, his brother was held as a hostage. Traveling to the siege lines at Fort Stanwix, Schuyler spread this tale among the already unhappy Native Americans. Word of Arnolds assault soon reached St. Leger who came to believe the American commander was advancing with 3,000 men. Holding a council of war on August 21, St. Leger found that part of his Native American contingent had already departed and that remainder was preparing to leave if he did not end the siege. Seeing little choice, the British leader broke off the siege the next day and began withdrawing back towards Lake Oneida. Siege of Fort Stanwix - Aftermath: Pressing forward, Arnolds column reached Fort Stanwix late on August 23. The next day, he ordered 500 men to pursue the retreating enemy. These reached the lake just as the last of St. Legers boats were departing. After securing the area, Arnold withdrew to rejoin Schuylers main army. Retreating back to Lake Ontario, St. Leger and his men were taunted by their erstwhile Native American allies. Seeking to rejoin Burgoyne, St. Leger and his men traveled back up the St. Lawrence and down Lake Champlain before arriving at Fort Ticonderoga in late September. While the casualties during the actual Siege of Fort Stanwix were light, the strategic consequences proved substantial. The defeat of St. Leger prevented his force from uniting with Burgoyne and disrupted the larger British plan. Continuing to push down the Hudson Valley, Burgoyne was halted and decisively defeated by American troops at the Battle of Saratoga. The turning point of the war, the triumph led to the critical Treaty of Alliance with France. Selected Sources National Park Service: Fort Stanwix National MonumentNew York State Military Museum: Fort Stanwix Revolutionary War: Siege of Fort Stanwix

The Dawes Act of 1887

The Dawes Act of 1887 The Dawes Act of 1887 was a United States post-Indian Wars law intended to assimilate Indians into white U.S. society by encouraging them to abandon their tribally-owned reservation lands, along with their cultural and social traditions. Signed into law by President Grover Cleveland on February 8, 1887, the Dawes Act resulted in the sale of over ninety million acres of formerly Native American-owned tribal land to non-natives. The negative effects of the Dawes Act on Native Americans would result in the enactment of the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, the so-called â€Å"Indian New Deal.† Key Takeaways: The Dawes Act The Dawes Act was a U.S. law enacted in 1887 for the stated purpose of assimilating Native Americans into white society.The act offered all Native Americans ownership of â€Å"allotments† of non-reservation land for farming.Indians who agreed to leave the reservations and farm their allotment land were granted full U.S. citizenship.Though well-intentioned, the Dawes Act had a decidedly negative effect on Native Americans, on and off the reservations. US Government-Native American Relation in the 1800s During the 1800s, European immigrants began settling areas of U.S. territories adjacent to Native American-held tribal territories. As competition for resources along with cultural differences between groups increasingly led to conflict, the U.S. government expanded its efforts to control Native Americans. Believing the two cultures could never coexist, the U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) ordered the forced relocation of Native Americans from their tribal lands to â€Å"reservations† west of the Mississippi River, far from the white settlers. Native American resistance to the forced relocation resulted in the Indian Wars between Native American and the U.S. Army that raged in the West for decades. Finally defeated by the U.S. military, the tribes agreed to resettle on the reservations. As a result, Native Americans found themselves the â€Å"owners† of over 155 million acres of land ranging from sparse desert to valuable agricultural land. Under the reservation system, the tribes were granted ownership of their new lands along with the right to govern themselves. Adjusting to their new way of life, Native Americans preserved their cultures and traditions on the reservations. Still recalling the brutality of the Indian wars, many white Americans continued to fear the Indians and demanded more government control over the tribes. The Indians’ resistance to becoming â€Å"Americanized† was viewed as uncivilized and threatening. As the 1900s began, the assimilation of Native Americans into American culture became a national priority. Responding to public opinion, influential members of Congress felt it was time for the tribes to give up their tribal lands, traditions, and even their identities as Indians. The Dawes Act was, at the time, considered the solution. Dawes Act Allotment of Indian Lands Named for its sponsor, Senator Henry L. Dawes of Massachusetts, the Dawes Act of 1887- also called the General Allotment Act- authorized the U.S. Department of the Interior to divide Native American tribal land into parcels or â€Å"allotments† of land to be owned, lived on, and farmed by individual Native Americans. Each Native American head of household was offered an allotment 160 acres of land, while unmarried adults were offered 80 acres. The law stipulated that grantees could not sell their allotment for 25 years. Those Native Americans who accepted their allotment and agreed to live separately from their tribe were granted the advantages of full United States citizenship. Any â€Å"excess† Indian reservation lands remaining after the allotments were determined available for purchase and settlement by non-Native Americans. The main objectives of the Dawes Act were to: abolish tribal and communal land ownershipassimilate Native Americans into mainstream American societylift Native Americans out of poverty, thus reducing the costs of Native American administration Individual Native American ownership of land for European-American style subsistence farming was seen as the key to achieving the Dawes Act’s objectives. Supporters of the act believed that by becoming citizens, Native American would be encouraged to exchange their â€Å"uncivilized† rebellious ideologies for those that would help them become economically self-supporting citizens, no longer in need of costly government supervision. Impact Rather than helping them as its creators intended, the Dawes Act had decidedly negative effects on Native Americans. It ended their tradition of farming communally held land which had for centuries ensured them a home and individual identity in the tribal community. As historian Clara Sue Kidwell wrote in her book â€Å"Allotment,† the act â€Å"was the culmination of American attempts to destroy tribes and their governments and to open Indian lands to settlement by non-Native Americans and to development by railroads.† As a result of the act, land owned by Native Americans decreased from 138 million acres in 1887 to 48 million acres in 1934. Senator Henry M. Teller of Colorado, an outspoken critic of the act, said the intent of the allotment plan was â€Å"to despoil the Native Americans of their lands and to make them vagabonds on the face of the earth.† Indeed, the Dawes Act harmed Native Americans in ways its supporters never anticipated. The close social bonds of life in tribal communities were broken, and displaced Indians struggled to adapt to their now nomadic agricultural existence. Many Indians who had accepted their allotments lost their land to swindlers. For those who chose to stay on the reservations, life became a daily battle with poverty, disease, filth, and depression. Sources and Further Reference â€Å"Dawes Act (1887).† OurDocuments.gov. US National Archives and Records AdministrationKidwell, Clara Sue. â€Å"Allotment.† Oklahoma Historical Society: Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and CultureCarlson, Leonard A. â€Å"Indians, Bureaucrats, and Land.† Greenwood Press (1981). ISBN-13: 978-0313225338.

Comparison, contrast and evaluation of the business case for the use Essay

Comparison, contrast and evaluation of the business case for the use of high performance in the two organizations - Essay Example In short, it is a collaborative and a continuous process conducted between a supervisor and employee in order to plan, develop and evaluate employee’s performance. Effective performance management aligns the efforts of supervisors and the employees by helping the employees to perform at their best to reach their goals and ensures that the performance management system conducted with fairness and transparency. Hence, ongoing performance management of the employees helps the organization to monitor the performance of employee’s achievements goals (University of Virginia, 2010). Comparison, contrast and evaluation of the business case for the use of high performance in the two organizations TCS and Air India are two big Indian organizations, which obviously from their diverse sectors have something in common. However, Air India and TCS have been taken to show the contrast as well as the comparison existing between the two organizations in case of performance management sys tems. Performance Management system in TCS considered as a velocity centre of an organization. In addition, TCS a private sector enterprise and largest IT Company in India, has a full-bodied appraisal system, where appraisal system based on balance score card, which is conducted at the end of the year or at the end of the project. However, in January 2008 the appraisal system was conducted, it was seen that the employees who received a rating of two in performance improvement plan, which was for a fixed period and based on this plan they were given an additional training in order to improve their performance. In the absence of improvement in performance, employees were given the option to resign (Dezzler & Varkkey, (2009). Performance Appraisal is not implemented as a continuous process in Air India, whereas in TCS the employees gain the advantage of receiving the rewards for their performance for a longer period in terms of achieving its goals. The reason behind the high performanc e of the employees in TCS is that, the employees performance are being appreciated and recognized by their supervisors which leads to bring the improve productivity in the organization. However, the performance of the employees in the Air India compared to TCS is comparatively low. Various kinds of rewards like long service awards and offering performance based annual increment to the high performers, generally motivates the employees to contribute towards high performance in the workplace. In Air India, reward systems generally related to performance, which was first, introduced at the Senior Executive Service in the organization and Senior Officers were considered the detached employees in the public sector. Therefore, according to Mac, there are many public sector firms, which had taken some long steps in rigorous way while dealing with issues related to performance of the employees (Australian Government, 1968, p.17-18). The main motive behind conducting performance appraisal in TCS is based on the

Informative speech Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Informative speech - Assignment Example Among the Chinese festivals is the annual Chinese traditional New Year’s party. The Chinese New Year is an important festival for the Chinese people all over the world. The Spring Festival is also used to refer to Chinese New Year. There is no set date when the Chinese New year specifically happens, and the festivals fall on a diverse date each particular year. However, the festival normally falls either in January or February. The Chinese New Year festival is celebrated for a period of up to 15 days (Jango-Cohen 8). During the night New Year festivities, a family reunion dinner is usually held. All family members are required to attend the reunion dinner. On the day of the festival, children wish good luck to their parents and in return they are given red packets that contain money. In addition, any unmarried member of the family is required to receive a red packet from every married member in the family. When the ninth day of the ceremony sets in, a traditional offering is offered to the Jade Emperor believed to be in heaven. A typical Chinese New Year is marked with firecrackers (Chey 149, 150). In any Chinese New Year festivities, firecrackers are a vital ingredient. During the festivities everywhere in China and the rest of the world where the celebrations are taking place fireworks explode. Fireworks mark an important cultural belief among the Chinese people. The significant of the fireworks in the Chinese New Year celebration is to scare any bad luck away from the New Year (Gleason 4). Food serves as a central component of most of the Chinese festivals and rituals of a social interaction. Visiting friends and family during the festival are required to bring gifts of food to the host’s family home. This serve as a reaffirmation of the good relationship of the families’ involved. Fundraising can be held during the Chinese New year to support a course that benefits the community. The Chinese Buddhist Universal church was

Challenges of quantitative research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Challenges of quantitative - Research Paper Example There are two kinds of research styles which are qualitative and quantitative researches. The values and norms of these researches are completely different (Thompson, 68-70). The application of methods which are used for applying these researches requires development of specific understanding. There have been negating views which supplement the importance of both the researches. Quantitative research methods are used by the researchers when they wish to make statements of situations which might take place in a population. This research style is based on probabilistic measures which form the basis of the theory. In this form of study the researcher has access to the data set of the population. Based on this data of the population samples are taken for pursuing the research. The concepts of data collection which form essential components of quantitative researches include sampling error method, random sampling and sampling bias method of data collection (Thompson, 68-70). Quantitative method of research is used specifically when the researchers base their studies on chance (or probability). In this report a discussion will be presented on challenges of conducting quantitative research. Specific application of research strategy based on IT education and its application for conducting a quantitative research will also be discussed. ... The analysis aids in measuring the ways in which a large population of people behave in various different situations (Bernard et al., 175-198). The quantitative data is formed on the basis of research techniques and gathering of quantitative data (Mahoney and Goertz, 227-249). The results of this data are measured as expressed in the form of percentages or either it is represented numerically, for example when the companies wish to calculate the overall brand awareness of the customers they use the quantitative style of research. The answer to this question which is a major purpose of this research will give numeric representation let’s say 15% of the respondents are familiar with the brand and its presence in the markets. The advantages of quantitative researches are that all the variable used which includes dependent and independent variables and the associated results of those variables can be analyzed independently. With the use of quantitative researches hypothesis can be tested very effectively (Smith, 6-13). The major drawback of using quantitative method of analysis is that huge sets of data are required for calculation. The collection of such huge sets of data requires a lot of work (Cohen, 155-159). CHALLENGES OF CONDUCTING QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH The challenges which the researchers most commonly have to face while conducting the researches are availability and lack of details, missing variables, relative sampling of large data and methodological limitation (Firestone, 16-21). 1. Availability And Lack Of Details Quantitative researches are criticized for lack of details as the researchers face difficulty in collecting the data. The quantitative research methods require finding public opinion with the use of

NHS Computer System Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

NHS Computer System - Research Paper Example Project management is further explained in five processes including initiation, planning, execution, controlling and closure. Moreover, it involves other knowledge areas such as time, scope, expenditure, risks involved, quality, commucation, procurement and even, integration at times (Milosevic 2003). The activities managed by the project team include identifying requirements, managing the expectations of stakeholders, and competing for time, scope, risk, cost, and quality. Projects are always marred by deviations from the scope, objectives and execution, and this has pushed project managers to link and harmonise change management, project control and risk management. This is because risks usually arise from inefficiency in management and inadequate documentation of changes (Heldman & Heldman 2007). Frame (2003) explains the importance of readiness by the project team to deal with changes and that it is risky to ignore a project’s environmental impacts and adequate information in the planning stage. According to Kerzner (2006), change and risk management is important as it reduces the number and level of surprises. He further he explains that risks and changes are â€Å"hand in hand† as risks are usually created by changes. NHS computer system NHS computer system was created under the functioning of UK Department of Health, and the system was produced to deliver the NHS National Programme which falls under IT (NPfIT). NPfIT was, however, initiated by the Department of Health of England which was given the task of shifting England`s National Health Service (NHS) to an integrated, electronic care record which can be centrally managed for patients, also which has the capacity... The NHS program has recently come under criticism especially with Department of Health refusing to give solid information about its progress to external observers. This has even led to academics in computer related fields to write a letter to the Health Select Committee raising concern about the program. The government has also been under fire for its apparent reluctance to evaluate and audit the program, and in case the development of the policy gets failed, i.e. the ICT policy proposed tends to cost less and benefit more, much evidence regarding technology is lacking.In 2009, the Public Accounts Committee reported that, the risks to the deployment system are getting higher and further termed in as being â€Å"as serious as ever,† whereby they further continued to say that the base of the project is now almost â€Å"way off the pace†, at this point further indicating the revision date which has already been extended i.e. the completion due date of 2014-2015 is still in doubt especially in the aftermath of the Fujitsu's contract being terminated, which had to cover the South. Moreover, it was concluded that there is already delay in essential systems, thus even if an effort to deploy the system is made, the clinical staff has high expectations which will not be possible to comply with. Furthermore, considering the current cost of the program, along with the managerial issues going on and also with the four IT providers being sacked, there has been an increase in the criticism going on about the project.

What Do Responsible and Irresponsible Mean Essay

What Do Responsible and Irresponsible Mean - Essay Example As the paper declares an unreliable person who is negligent towards his duties and does not finish them accordingly is considered to be irresponsible. Responsibility is not restricted to one particular aspect but it rather plays a role in all the activities performed by a human being in his everyday life and a perfect standard of life can only be achieved by being responsible. From this discussion it is clear that the higher a position that a person acquires in the society, the burden of his responsibilities increases even more. A perfect example can be that of the heads of our states because they are accountable for everything that happens in the country and their responsibilities are not restricted to one area but rather they encompass the entire country. This responsibility is clearly associated with the management of people and the tasks that one has to perform. But apart from these obvious duties there are certain duties that own has towards the society. The norms that have been decided for the society teach a person about these responsibilities that he has towards it. A responsible human being will look into all aspects which include the leading of a moral and ethical life because he owes this responsibility to his Lord. Thus almost every activity that we perform is a reflection of our responmsible character. Irresponsible as the name implies runs on the opposite track to being responsible. An irresponsible nature is acquired by a person either intentionally or without intention. A person who knows that certain duties are important and should be performed but he still neglects them shows an intentional irresponsible character of a person. On the other hand a person does not even work to understand what he is obliged to do.  

African American Culture Essay Example for Free

African American Culture Essay African American culture in the United States includes the various cultural traditions of African ethnic groups. It is both part of and distinct from American culture. The U. S. Census Bureau defines African Americans as people having origins in any of the Black race groups of Africa. [1] African American culture is indigenous to the descendants in the U. S. of survivors of the Middle Passage. It is rooted in Africa and is an amalgam of chiefly sub-Saharan African and Sahelean cultures. Although slavery greatly restricted the ability of Africans in America to practice their cultural traditions, many practices, values and beliefs survived and over time have incorporated elements of European American culture. There are even certain facets of African American culture that were brought into being or made more prominent as a result of slavery; an example of this is how drumming became used as a means of communication and establishing a community identity during that time. The result is a dynamic, creative culture that has had and continues to have a profound impact on mainstream American culture and on world culture as well. After Emancipation, these uniquely African American traditions continued to grow. They developed into distinctive traditions in music, art, literature, religion, food, holidays, amongst others. While for some time sociologists, such as Gunnar Myrdal and Patrick Moynihan, believed that African Americans had lost most cultural ties with Africa, anthropological field research by Melville Hersovits and others demonstrated that there is a continuum of African traditions among Africans in the New World from the West Indies to the United States. The greatest influence of African cultural practices on European cultures is found below the Mason-Dixon in the southeastern United States, especially in the Carolinas among the Gullah people and in Louisiana. African American culture often developed separately from mainstream American culture because of African Americans desire to practice their own traditions, as well as the persistence of racial segregation in America. Consequently African American culture has become a significant part of American culture and yet, at the same time, remains a distinct culture apart from it. History From the earliest days of slavery, slave owners sought to exercise control over their slaves by attempting to strip them of their African culture. The physical isolation and societal marginalization of African slaves and, later, of their free progeny, however, actually facilitated the retention of significant elements of traditional culture among Africans in the New World generally, and in the U. S. in particular. Slave owners deliberately tried to repress political organization in order to deal with the many slave rebellions that took place in the southern United States, Brazil, Haiti, and the Dutch Guyanas. African cultures,slavery,slave rebellions,and the civil rights movements(circa 1800s-160s)have shaped African American religious, familial, political and economic behaviors. The imprint of Africa is evident in myriad ways, in politics, economics, language, music, hairstyles, fashion, dance, religion and worldview, and food preparation methods. In the United States, the very legislation that was designed to strip slaves of culture and deny them education served in many ways to strengthen it. In turn, African American culture has had a pervasive, transformative impact on myriad elements of mainstream American culture, among them language, music, dance, religion, cuisine, and agriculture. This process of mutual creative exchange is called creolization. Over time, the culture of African slaves and their descendants has been ubiquitous in its impact on not only the dominant American culture, but on world culture as well. Oral tradition Slaveholders limited or prohibited education of enslaved African Americans because they believed it might lead to revolts or escape plans. Hence, African-based oral traditions became the primary means of preserving history, morals, and other cultural information among the people. This was consistent with the griot practices of oral history in many African and other cultures that did not rely on the written word. Many of these cultural elements have been passed from generation to generation through storytelling. The folktales provided African Americans the opportunity to inspire and educate one another. Examples of African American folktales include trickster tales of Brer Rabbit and heroic tales such as that of John Henry. The Uncle Remus stories by Joel Chandler Harris helped to bring African American folk tales into mainstream adoption. Harris did not appreciate the complexity of the stories nor their potential for a lasting impact on society. Characteristics of the African American oral tradition present themselves in a number of forms. African American preachers tend to perform rather than simply speak. The emotion of the subject is carried through the speakers tone, volume, and movement, which tend to mirror the rising action, climax, and descending action of the sermon. Often song, dance, verse and structured pauses are placed throughout the sermon. Techniques such as call-and-response are used to bring the audience into the presentation. In direct contrast to recent tradition in other American and Western cultures, it is an acceptable and common audience reaction to interrupt and affirm the speaker. Spoken word is another example of how the African American oral tradition influences modern American popular culture. Spoken word artists employ the same techniques as African American preachers including movement, rhythm, and audience participation. Rap music from the 1980s and beyond has been seen as an extension of oral culture. Harlem Renaissance [pic] Zora Neale Hurston was a prominent literary figure during the Harlem Renaissance. Main article: Harlem Renaissance The first major public recognition of African American culture occurred during the Harlem Renaissance. In the 1920s and 1930s, African American music, literature, and art gained wide notice. Authors such as Zora Neale Hurston and Nella Larsen and poets such as Langston Hughes, Claude McKay, and Countee Cullen wrote works describing the African American experience. Jazz, swing, blues and other musical forms entered American popular music. African American artists such as William H. Johnson and Palmer Hayden created unique works of art featuring African Americans. The Harlem Renaissance was also a time of increased political involvement for African Americans. Among the notable African American political movements founded in the early 20th century are the United Negro Improvement Association and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. The Nation of Islam, a notable Islamic religious movement, also began in the early 1930s. African American cultural movement The Black Power movement of the 1960s and 1970s followed in the wake of the non-violent American Civil Rights Movement. The movement promoted racial pride and ethnic cohesion in contrast to the focus on integration of the Civil Rights Movement, and adopted a more militant posture in the face of racism. It also inspired a new renaissance in African American literary and artistic expression generally referred to as the African American or Black Arts Movement. The works of popular recording artists such as Nina Simone (Young, Gifted and Black) and The Impressions (Keep On Pushin), as well as the poetry, fine arts and literature of the time, shaped and reflected the growing racial and political consciousness. Among the most prominent writers of the African American Arts Movement were poet Nikki Giovanni; poet and publisher Don L. Lee, who later became known as Haki Madhubuti; poet and playwright Leroi Jones, later known as Amiri Baraka; and Sonia Sanchez. Other influential writers were Ed Bullins, Dudley Randall, Mari Evans, June Jordan, Larry Neal and Ahmos Zu-Bolton. Another major aspect of the African American Arts Movement was the infusion of the African aesthetic, a return to a collective cultural sensibility and ethnic pride that was much in evidence during the Harlem Renaissance and in the celebration of Negritude among the artistic and literary circles in the U. S. , Caribbean and the African continent nearly four decades earlier: the idea that black is beautiful. During this time, there was a resurgence of interest in, and an embrace of, elements of African culture within African American culture that had been suppressed or devalued to conform to Eurocentric America. Natural hairstyles, such as the afro, and African clothing, such as the dashiki, gained popularity. More importantly, the African American aesthetic encouraged personal pride and political awareness among African Americans. Music [pic] Men playing the djembe, a traditional West African drum adopted into African American and American culture. The bags and the clothing of the man on the right are printed with traditional kente cloth patterns. African American music is rooted in the typically polyrhythmic music of the ethnic groups of Africa, specifically those in the Western, Sahelean, and Sub-Saharan regions. African oral traditions, nurtured in slavery, encouraged the use of music to pass on history, teach lessons, ease suffering, and relay messages. The African pedigree of African American music is evident in some common elements: call and response, syncopation, percussion, improvisation, swung notes, blue notes, the use of falsetto, melisma, and complex multi-part harmony. During slavery, Africans in America blended traditional European hymns with African elements to create spirituals. Many African Americans sing Lift Evry Voice and Sing in addition to the American national anthem, The Star-Spangled Banner, or in lieu of it. Written by James Weldon Johnson and John Rosamond Johnson in 1900 to be performed for the birthday of Abraham Lincoln, the song was, and continues to be, a popular way for African Americans to recall past struggles and express ethnic solidarity, faith and hope for the future. The song was adopted as the Negro National Anthem by the NAACP in 1919. African American children are taught the song at school, church or by their families. Lift Evry Voice and Sing traditionally is sung immediately following, or instead of, The Star-Spangled Banner at events hosted by African American churches, schools, and other organizations. In the 1800s, as the result of the blackface minstrel show, African American music entered mainstream American society. By the early twentieth century, several musical forms with origins in the African American community had transformed American popular music. Aided by the technological innovations of radio and phonograph records, ragtime, jazz, blues, and swing also became popular overseas, and the 1920s became known as the Jazz Age. The early 20th century also saw the creation of the first African American Broadway shows, films such as King Vidors Hallelujah!, and operas such as George Gershwins Porgy and Bess. Rock and roll, doo wop, soul, and RB developed in the mid 20th century. These genres became very popular in white audiences and were influences for other genres such as surf. The dozens, an urban African American tradition of using rhyming slang to put down your enemies (or friends) developed through the smart-ass street jive of the early Seventies into a new form of music. In the South Bronx, the half speaking, half singing rhythmic street talk of rapping grew into the hugely successful cultural force known as Hip Hop. Hip Hop would become a multicultural movement. However, it is still important to many African Americans. The African American Cultural Movement of the 1960s and 1970s also fueled the growth of funk and later hip-hop forms such as rap, hip house, new jack swing and go go. African American music has experienced far more widespread acceptance in American popular music in the 21st century than ever before. In addition to continuing to develop newer musical forms, modern artists have also started a rebirth of older genres in the form of genres such as neo soul and modern funk-inspired groups. Dance [pic] The Cakewalk was the first African American dance to gain widespread popularity in the United States. [pic] African American dance, like other aspects of African American culture, finds its earliest roots in the dances of the hundreds of African ethnic groups that made up African slaves in the Americas as well as influences from European sources in the United States. Dance in the African tradition, and thus in the tradition of slaves, was a part of both every day life and special occasions. Many of these traditions such as get down, ring shouts, and other elements of African body language survive as elements of modern dance. In the 1800s, African American dance began to appear in minstrel shows. These shows often presented African Americans as caricatures for ridicule to large audiences. The first African American dance to become popular with White dancers was the cakewalk in 1891. Later dances to follow in this tradition include the Charleston, the Lindy Hop, and the Jitterbug. During the Harlem Renaissance, all African American Broadway shows such as Shuffle Along helped to establish and legitimize African American dancers. African American dance forms such as tap, a combination of African and European influences, gained widespread popularity thanks to dancers such as Bill Robinson and were used by leading White choreographers who often hired African American dancers. Contemporary African American dance is descended from these earlier forms and also draws influence from African and Caribbean dance forms. Groups such as the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater have continued to contribute to the growth of this form. Modern popular dance in America is also greatly influenced by African American dance. American popular dance has also drawn many influences from African American dance most notably in the hip hop genre. Art [pic] Sand Dunes at Sunset, Atlantic City by Henry Ossawa Tanner 1859-1937 From its early origins in slave communities, through the end of the twentieth century, African-American art has made a vital contribution to the art of the United States. During the period between the 1600s and the early 1800s, art took the form of small drums, quilts, wrought-iron figures and ceramic vessels in the southern United States. These artifacts have similarities with comparable crafts in West and Central Africa. In contrast, African American artisans like the New England–based engraver Scipio Moorhead and the Baltimore portrait painter Joshua Johnson created art that was conceived in a thoroughly western European fashion. During the 1800s, Harriet Powers made quilts in rural Georgia, United States that are now considered among the finest examples of nineteenth-century Southern quilting. Later in the 20th century, the women of Gee’s Bend developed a distinctive, bold, and sophisticated quilting style based on traditional African American quilts with a geometric simplicity that developed separately but was like that of Amish quilts and modern art. After the American Civil War, museums and galleries began more frequently to display the work of African American artists. Cultural expression in mainstream venues was still limited by the dominant European aesthetic and by racial prejudice. To increase the visibility of their work, many African American artists traveled to Europe where they had greater freedom. It was not until the Harlem Renaissance that more whites began to pay attention to African American art in America. [pic] Kara Walker, Cut, Cut paper and adhesive on wall, Brent Sikkema NYC. During the 1920s, artists such as Raymond Barthe, Aaron Douglas, Augusta Savage, and photographer James Van Der Zee became well known for their work. During the Great Depression, new opportunities arose for these and other African American artists under the WPA. In later years, other programs and institutions, such as the New York City-based Harmon Foundation, helped to foster African American artistic talent. Augusta Savage, Elizabeth Catlett, Lois Mailou Jones, Romare Bearden, Jacob Lawrence and others exhibited in museums and juried art shows, and built reputations and followings for themselves. In the 1950s and 1960s, there were very few widely accepted African American artists. Despite this, The Highwaymen, a loose association of 27 African American artists from Ft. Pierce, Florida, created idyllic, quickly realized images of the Florida landscape and peddled some 50,000 of them from the trunks of their cars. They sold their art directly to the public rather than through galleries and art agents, thus receiving the name The Highwaymen. Rediscovered in the mid-1990s, today they are recognized as an important part of American folk history. Their artwork is widely collected by enthusiasts and original pieces can easily fetch thousands of dollars in auctions and sales. The Black Arts Movement of the 1960s and 1970s was another period of resurgent interest in African American art. During this period, several African-American artists gained national prominence, among them Lou Stovall, Ed Love, Charles White, and Jeff Donaldson. Donaldson and a group of African-American artists formed the Afrocentric collective AFRICOBRA, which remains in existence today. The sculptor Martin Puryear, whose work has been acclaimed for years, is being honored with a 30-year retrospective of his work at the Museum of Modern Art in New York starting November 2007. Notable contemporary African American artists include David Hammons, Eugene J. Martin, Charles Tolliver, and Kara Walker. Literature [pic] Langston Hughes, a notable African American poet of the Harlem Renaissance. African American literature has its roots in the oral traditions of African slaves in America. The slaves used stories and fables in much the same way as they used music. These stories influenced the earliest African American writers and poets in the 18thcentury such as Phillis Wheatley and Olaudah Equiano. These authors reached early high points by telling slave narratives. During the early 20th century Harlem Renaissance, numerous authors and poets, such as Langston Hughes, W. E. B. Dubois, and Booker T. Washington, grappled with how to respond to discrimination in America. Authors during the Civil Rights era, such as Richard Wright, James Baldwin and Gwendolyn Brooks wrote about issues of racial segregation, oppression and other aspects of African American life. This tradition continues today with authors who have been accepted as an integral part of American literature, with works such as Roots: The Saga of an American Family by Alex Haley, The Color Purple by Alice Walker, and Beloved by Nobel Prize-winning Toni Morrison, and series by Octavia Butler and Walter Mosley that have achieved both best-selling and/or award-winning status. Museums The African American Museum Movement emerged during the 1950s and 1960s to preserve the heritage of the African American experience and to ensure its proper interpretation in American history. Museums devoted to African American history are found in many African American neighborhoods. Institutions such as the African American Museum and Library at Oakland and The African American Museum in Cleveland were created by African Americans to teach and investigate cultural history that, until recent decades was primarily preserved trough oral traditions. Language Generations of hardships imposed on the African American community created distinctive language patterns. Slave owners often intentionally mixed people who spoke different African languages to discourage communication in any language other than English. This, combined with prohibitions against education, led to the development of pidgins, simplified mixtures of two or more languages that speakers of different languages could use to communicate. Examples of pidgins that became fully developed languages include Creole, common to Haiti,and Gullah, common to the Sea Islands off the coast of South Carolina and Georgia. African American Vernacular English is a type variety (dialect, ethnolect and sociolect) of the American English language closely associated with the speech of but not exclusive to African Americans. While AAVE is academically considered a legitimate dialect because of its logical structure, some of both Caucasians and African Americans consider it slang or the result of a poor command of Standard American English. Inner city African American children who are isolated by speaking only AAVE have more difficulty with standardized testing and, after school, moving to the mainstream world for work. It is common for many speakers of AAVE to code switch between AAVE and Standard American English depending on the setting. Fashion and aesthetics [pic]. A man weaving kente cloth in Ghana. Attire The cultural explosion of the 1960s saw the incorporation of surviving cultural dress with elements from modern fashion and West African traditional clothing to create a uniquely African American traditional style. Kente cloth is the best known African textile. These festive woven patterns, which exist in numerous varieties, were originally made by the Ashanti and Ewe peoples of Ghana and Togo. Kente fabric also appears in a number of Western style fashions ranging from casual t-shirts to formal bow ties and cummerbunds. Kente strips are often sewn into liturgical and academic robes or worn as stoles. Since the Black Arts Movement, traditional African clothing has been popular amongst African Americans for both formal and informal occasions. Another common aspect of fashion in African American culture involves the appropriate dress for worship in the Black church. It is expected in most churches that an individual should present their best appearance for worship. African American women in particular are known for wearing vibrant dresses and suits. An interpretation of a passage from the Christian Bible, every woman who prays or prophesies with her head uncovered dishonors her head , has led to the tradition of wearing elaborate Sunday hats, sometimes known as crowns. Hair Hair styling in African American culture is greatly varied. African American hair is typically composed of tightly coiled curls. The predominant styles for women involve the straightening of the hair through the application of heat or chemical processes. These treatments form the base for the most commonly socially acceptable hairstyles in the United States. Alternatively, the predominant and most socially acceptable practice for men is to leave ones hair natural. Often, as men age and begin to lose their hair, the hair is either closely cropped, or the head is shaved completely free of hair. However, since the 1960s, natural hairstyles, such as the afro, braids, and dreadlocks, have been growing in popularity. Although the association with radical political movements and their vast difference from mainstream Western hairstyles, the styles have not yet attained widespread social acceptance. Maintaining facial hair is more prevalent among African American men than in other male populations in the U. S. In fact, the soul patch is so named because African American men, particularly jazz musicians, popularized the style. The preference for facial hair among African American men is due partly to personal taste, but because they are more prone than other ethnic groups to develop a condition known as pseudofolliculitis barbae, commonly referred to as razor bumps, many prefer not to shave. Body image The European aesthetic and attendant mainstream concepts of beauty are often at odds with the African body form. Because of this, African American women often find themselves under pressure to conform to European standards of beauty. Still, there are individuals and groups who are working towards raising the standing of the African aesthetic among African Americans and internationally as well. This includes efforts toward promoting as models those with clearly defined African features; the mainstreaming of natural hairstyles; and, in women, fuller, more voluptuous body types. Religion While African Americans practice a number of religions, Protestant Christianity is by far the most popular. Additionally, 14% of Muslims in the United States and Canada are African American. Christianity [pic] A river baptism in New Bern, North Carolina near the turn of the 20th century. The religious institutions of African American Christians commonly are referred tocollectively as the black church. During slavery, many slaves were stripped of their African belief systems and typically denied free religious practice. Slaves managed, however, to hang on to some practices by integrating them into Christian worship in secret meetings. These practices, including dance, shouts, African rhythms, and enthusiastic singing, remain a large part of worship in the African American church. African American churches taught that all people were equal in Gods eyes and viewed the doctrine of obedience to ones master taught in white churches as hypocritical. Instead the African American church focused on the message of equality and hopes for a better future. Before and after emancipation, racial segregation in America prompted the development of organized African American denominations. The first of these was the AME Church founded by Richard Allen in 1787. An African American church is not necessarily a separate denomination. Several predominantly African American churches exist as members of predominantly white denominations. African American churches have served to provide African American people with leadership positions and opportunities to organize that were denied in mainstream American society. Because of this, African American pastors became the bridge between the African American and European American communities and thus played a crucial role in the American Civil Rights Movement. Like many Christians, African American Christians sometimes participate in or attend a Christmas play. Black Nativity by Langston Hughes is a re-telling of the classic Nativity story with gospel music. Productions can be found a African American theaters and churches all over the country. Islam [pic] A member of the Nation of Islam selling merchandise on a city street corner. Despite the popular assumption that the Nation represents all or most African American Muslims, less than 2% are members. Generations before the advent of the Atlantic slave trade, Islam was a thriving religion in West Africa due to its peaceful introduction via the lucrative trans-Saharan trade between prominent tribes in the southern Sahara and the Berbers to the North. In his attesting to this fact the West African scholar Cheikh Anta Diop explained: The primary reason for the success of Islam in Black Africa consequently stems from the fact that it was propagated peacefully at first by solitary Arabo-Berber travelers to certain Black kings and notables, who then spread it about them to those under their jurisdiction Many first-generation slaves were often able to retain their Muslim identity, their descendants were not. Slaves were either forcibly converted to Christianity as was the case in the Catholic lands or were besieged with gross inconviences to their religious practice such as in the case of the Protestant American mainland. In the decades after slavery and particularly during the depression era, Islam reemerged in the form of highly visible and sometimes controversial heterodox movements in the African American community. The first of these of note was the Moorish Science Temple of America, founded by Noble Drew Ali. Ali had a profound influence on Wallace Fard, who later founded the Black nationalist Nation of Islam in 1930. Elijah Muhammad became head of the organization in 1934. Much like Malcolm X, who left the Nation of Islam in 1964, many African American Muslims now follow traditional Islam. A survey by the Council on American-Islamic Relations shows that 30% of Sunni Mosque attendees are African Americans. African American orthodox Muslims are often the victims of stereotypes, most notably the assumption that an African American Muslim is a member of the Nation of Islam. They are often viewed by the uneducated African-American community in general as less authentic than Muslims from the Middle East or South Asia while credibility is less of an issue with immigrant Muslims and Muslim world in general. Other religions. Aside from Christianity and Islam, there are also African Americans who follow Judaism, Buddhism, and a number of other religions. The Black Hebrew Israelites are a collection of African American Jewish religious organizations. Among their varied teachings, they often include that African Americans are descended from the Biblical Hebrews (sometimes with the paradoxical claim that the Jewish people are not). There is a small but growing number of African Americans who participate in African traditional religions, such as Vodou and Santeria or Ifa and diasporic traditions like Rastafarianism. Many of them are immigrants or descendants of immigrants from the Caribbean and South America, where these are practiced. Because of religious practices, such as animal sacrifice, which are no longer common among American religions and are often legally prohibited, these groups may be viewed negatively and are sometimes the victims of harassment. Life events For most African Americans, the observance of life events follows the pattern of mainstream American culture. There are some traditions which are unique to African Americans. Some African Americans have created new rites of passage that are linked to African traditions. Pre-teen and teenage boys and girls take classes to prepare them for adulthood. They are typically taught spirituality, responsibility, and leadership. Most of these programs are modeled after traditional African ceremonies, with the focus largely on embracing African ideologies rather than specific rituals. To this day, some African American couples choose to jump the broom as a part of their wedding ceremony. Although the practice, which can be traced back to Ghana, fell out of favor in the African American community after the end of slavery, it has experienced a slight resurgence in recent years as some couples seek to reaffirm their African heritage. Funeral traditions tend to vary based on a number of factors, including religion and location, but there are a number of commonalities. Probably the most important part of death and dying in the African American culture is the gathering of family and friends. Either in the last days before death or shortly after death, typically any friends and family members that can be reached are notified. This gathering helps to provide spiritual and emotional support, as well as assistance in making decisions and accomplishing everyday tasks. The spirituality of death is very important in African American culture. A member of the clergy or members of the religious community, or both, are typically present with the family through the entire process. Death is often viewed as transitory rather than final. Many services are called homegoings, instead of funerals, based on the belief that the person is going home to the afterlife. The entire end of life process is generally treated as a celebration of life rather than a mourning of loss. This is most notably demonstrated in the New Orleans Jazz Funeral tradition where upbeat music, dancing, and food encourage those gathered to be happy and celebrate the homegoing of a beloved friend. Cuisine [pic] A traditional soul food dinner consisting of fried chicken, candied yams, collard greens, cornbread, and macaroni and cheese. The cultivation and use of many agricultural products in the United States, such as yams, peanuts, rice, okra, sorghum, grits, watermelon, indigo dyes, and cotton, can be traced to African influences. African American foods reflect creative responses to racial and economic oppression and poverty. Under slavery, African Americans were not allowed to eat better cuts of meat, and after emancipation many often were too poor to afford them. Soul food, a hearty cuisine commonly associated with African Americans in the South (but also common to African Americans nationwide), makes cre.

The White Mans Burden, Rudyard Kipling | Analysis

The White Mans Burden, Rudyard Kipling | Analysis I aim to evaluate the use of irony and symbol in the poems The White Mans Burden and the Real White Mans Burden to see how effective both writers were in using these elements to convey meanings. In the case of Kipling, I will consider two points of views. The first point of view is that Kipling was an imperialist who supports the take over of other governments to show superiority. The second point of view is that Kipling was an imperialist who supports the take over of other governments as an act of humanity to bring civilization to the uncivilized and, that he warns of the perils of showing superiority as oppose to bringing true liberation. In the case of Crosby, since he presents a single view point, I will evaluate his effectiveness of using irony and symbolism in parodying the work of Kipling. Effectively used, irony and symbol could convey a message with more than one meaning as demonstrated in Rudyard Kiplings poem The White Mans Burden or, they could convey a single message de monstrated in Ernest H. Crosbys poem The Real White Mans Burden. In the final analysis, I submit that the effective use of the elements of poetry, in this case, irony and symbol, are vital to the correct interpretation and understanding of the meaning of both poems. In order to establish a well-rounded understanding of the basis for the two interpretations of Kiplings work and the single interpretation of the work of Crosby, I submit definitions for the terms imperialism, irony, and symbol. These definitions will also serve to show whether or not there was effectiveness in the use of the elements of poetry, in both poems. As defined by Dictionary.Com: Imperialism is the policy of extending the rule or authority of an empire or nation over foreign countries, or of acquiring and holding colonies and dependencies. Irony is the discrepancy between what is said, done, expected or intended, and what is meant, what happens, and what others understand. Satirical irony is the exposure of the vices or follies of an individual, a group, an institution, an idea, a society, usually with a view to correct the folly. Symbol is anything that stands for something else. (Dictionary.Com) Having establishing the definitions, I will now analyze the use of irony and symbols in Ruyard Kiplings poem. While Kipling uses both irony and symbols, his use of irony is greater. Kiplings expertly uses irony to bring about the intended end result of two opposing perspectives as to whether imperialism is for human good or elitist gain. In the first view point, Kipling uses the poem The White Mans Burden to encourage America to take over the Phillipines imperialistically or, for elitist gain. Kipling writes: Take up the White mans burden / Send forth the best ye breed / Go bind your sons in exile / To serve your captives need; (1-4) The first observation of the poem is Kiplings decision to call the poem The White Mans Burden. Undoubtedly, the use of the phrase White Man is the lightening rod that sparks the view that Kiplings position was that of an imperialist having at its core the tenets of Social Darwinism. According to Kretchner, the concept of Social Darwinism purports that natural order obligates powerful, civilized nations to appropriate the limited resources of the weak. (Kretchmar) Hence, Kiplings urging of America to assist the Phillipines to reach civilization may be interpreted as him supporting the imperialistic movement. Even further, Kiplings encouragement that the empire should send forth the best ye breed has very strong racial connotations. During that time in history, blacks were not considered as equals to whites in America. The unequal treatment of blacks was so prevalent in Americas economic, political, and social systems that James Weldon Johnson, writes Lift Every Voice and Sing also known as the Black National Anthem, to encourage black people to sing and march until victory is won. This cry for equality continues in 1968, with Martin Luther King still only having a dream of equality. Though, in 2008, Barrack Obama becomes the first black President, there still remains the cry for true equality. In addition to the charges to Take up White Mans burden / Send forth the best ye breed(1-2), Kiplings use of phrases such as To veil the threat of terror / And check the show of pride. (11-12) asserts that the Empire must do what is necessary to eliminate resistance and to subdue insurrections against Imperialism. Not only should the Empire silence the voices of the captives, but she must also limit or remove any signs of pride that they might muster. Further, Kiplings characterizations of the people as On fluttered folk and wild / New caught- sullen peoples, / Half-devil and half-child. (6-8) may be easily construed as connatively condescending. Kipling seems to imply that the empire must be prepared to reinforce her stance By open speech and simple / A hundred times make plain (13-14). Kiplings distinction of the empire seem to be lofty in its tone. By marrying the symbols of the captives as being inferior people to the santimonious responsibility of the Empire to bring civility to the uncivilized, one can conclude that Kipling supports that the Empire is superior and hence has the responsibility to bring civility to the uncivilized. Ironically, the same body of work that interpretively champions the Empire as being superior to the captives, implores the empire to be fair and complete in its liberation of the captives. The second point of view to the work of Kipling in the The White Mans Burden is 4that he advocates for the fair treatment of the captives. Kiplings urging of the empire to liberate the captives and to take care of their needs can be found throughout his poem. According to Bonamy Dobree, while speaking to Canadians in 1907, Kipling said: I have, I confess it now, done my best for about twenty years to make all men of the sister nations within the Empire interested in each other. Because I know that at heart all our men are pretty much alike, in that they have the same aspirations,à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦and when all is said and done we have only each other to depend upon. (Dobree 80) Kipling demonstrates a view consistent to those who believe that true liberation is not oppressive. For example, he writes: Take up the White Mans burden / The savage wars of peace- / Fill full the mouth of Famine / And bid the sickness cease; (17-20) Further, Kipling warns the Empire that all of its actions or inactions, all that it say or not say will help to determine how the captives view the Empire and its God. Here is what Kipling says: By all ye cry or whisper, / By all ye leave or do, / The silent, sullen peoples / Shall weigh your gods and you. (45-48) In addition to how the captives view the Empire and its God, Kipling writes that other countries and future generations will also look at the treatment of the captives and judge the Empire. Kipling goes on to tell the empire not to celebrate its victory or relish in the praise, since these acts are childish, but that the Empire should be more concern with how the work would be judged by the Empires peers for years to come.To encapsulate the view that Kipling wanted the Empire to bring civilization without showing superiority, his closing verse from the poem is submitted. Kipling writes: Take up the White Mans burden / Have done with childish days / The lightly preferred laurel, / The easy, ungrudged praise. / Comes now, to search your manhood / Through all the thankless years / Cold. Edged with dear-bought wisdom, / The judgment of your peers! (49-56) These words clearly indicate that Kipling encourage the Empire to be honorable in its dealings with the Natives. Contrary to the school of thought that Kipling advocates civilization with true liberation, is Crosbys position that the Empire uses blessings as a doorway to go in and take away the true riches of the people and in exchange gives them an oppressive life style. Unlike Kiplings rendering of his poem, The White Mans Burden where he shows his trust for the Empire, Crosby in his parody The Real White Mans Burden, blatantly shows his mistrust of the Empire. Most importantly, though he employs heavy use of irony and symbols to demonstrate his opposing view of the Empire, Crosby does not dillute the single message of his poem. First, Crosbys title of the poem is a clear indicator of his dissent from Kiplings views. He uses the term White Man to solidify the object of his remarks, but, he goes further by using the word Real which ironically implies that there is a masking of the truth. Crosbys title speaks strongly of his judgment against the Empire. Historically, his point of view is drawn from his experiences as a social activist and as a black man living in America at the time of the Spanish American War. According to an essay by Andrew Hebard, Crosbys position on Imperialism mirrors that of Amy Kaplan who says imperialism is as a network of power relations that changes over space and time and is riddled with instability, ambiguity, and disorder, rather than as a monolithic system of domination that the very word empire implies. (Hebard) Next, are observations of the blending of symbol and irony used by Crosby to demonstrate his view of the Empire. Crosby believes that the motive of the Empire is ill-willed. He also believes that their chaiotic sytems bring failure, and the Empire dangle proverbial carrots in exchange for far more valuable gains. Crosbys position is that the eventual outcome of imperialism will be social, economical, and political oppression. At this time, a detailed look at Crosbys use of irony and symbols to depict the social climate that prevailed in America, the climate which he opposed to being introduced to the Natives, is warranted. Crosby asserts: Take up the White Mans burden; / Send forth your sturdy sons, / And load them down with whisky / And Testaments and guns. (1-4) Ironically, these lines subliminally say that the drinking of whiskey mask the truth, since it is widely known that people who consume too much alcohol are not as cognitively aware as they should be and, therefore, not able to think correctly are apt to believe anything told to them. Further, being loaded down with whiskey causes a usually sturdy person to stagger, and even fall. More overtly though, is the fact that Testament represents truth and wholesomeness, and guns represent power and destruction. But, because the minds are altered with alcohol, the masking of the real motive is easily perpetrated. There is a strong possibility that the soldiers will introduce the social ill of alcoholism to the natives, and will also help to spread propoganda about the good of imperialisim thereby causing the natives to become drunk and misinformed. The abililty of the natives to think reasonably correct about their condition will be diminished. To further support his view of social failure and to show that the Empire thinks that the Natives have limited information and can be easily captured if not military, certainly they can be captured through the spread of socially communicable diseases. Crosby writes: Throw in a few diseases / to spread in tropic climes, / For there the healthy niggers / Are quite behind the times. (5-8) Crosby bolsters his position of social oppression by saying: Give them electrocution chairs, / And prisons too, galore, / And if they seem inclined to kick, / Then spill their heathen gore. (21-24) The symbols of electrocution chairs, prisons, and gore ironically speaks of death both physically and mentally. Physically speaking, there is the death of the person whether by electrocution, or the spilling of the blood. Then, there is death of having freedom of space, since prisons limit movement. While subtle, based on Crosbys account, the intention to kill the dreams of the natives, screams from the pages of history. Crosby knows from his experience, that if any form of resistance, whether through word or action, is shown, if any attempt to pursue any dreams, ideologies, or customs that threatens the goals of the Empire is made, that the Empire would by any means necessary, ensure that the pursuit of those dreams was deferred and dry up like A Raisins in the Sun. (Diyanni 1870 ) In addition to social oppression, Crosby purports that the Natives will be opressed economically through hard labor as well as through the Empires system of taxation and debt. The view point of oppresive labor is aptly projected through the use of irony. Crosby claims: And dont forget the factories. / on those benighted shores / They have no cheerful iron mills / Nor eke departmemnt stores / They never work twelve hours a day, / And live in strange content. (9-14) Through his masterful use of irony, Crosby argues that the natives, who did not work as long hours as did the Americans, were very content with what little they thought they had. However, the bigger issue for Crosby appears to be that Empire knew that the natives were actually very successful and wealthy and sought to make them believe that their way of life was inadequate, and to turn them from being owners of the land to laborers in the land so that the Empire may be expanded. (A perfect combination of imperialism and colonialism!) Even more indicative of his stance against economic oppression, Crosby decried the imposing of taxation and debt. He writes: Take up the White Mans burden, / And teach the Phillipines / What interest and taxes are / and what a mortgage means. (17-20) Again, in Crosbys minds eye, there is the irony of a people who are successful in their simple but, independent way of life who being militarily inferior are consequently forced to become failures by their dependence on a monstrous financial system. In a final attempt to show the fallacy of the Empire, Crosby highlights the political climate that the Empire embraces. He pens: They need our labor question, too, / And politics and fraud. / Weve made a pretty mess at home; / Lets make a mess abroad. (25 -28) The irony in these lines humorously evaluate the endeavor of the Empire to fix anothers problem, when it cannot solve its own problems. In a nutshell, Crosby believes that Imperialism is a preposterous veiled attempt to cloak greed in kind deeds by using methods that are disfunctional. In summarizing his single message of the failure and hypocrisy of the Empire, Crosby does three things. First he mocks what the Empire regards as a valiant mission, Next, he shows the unparrarel trade that the Empire wants, and then, he addresses the faà §ade of the scripting of the mission that the Empire prefer to be written in the annals of history. The use of satirical irony and symbols are well armoured vehicles to deliver these points. Crosby declares: Take up the White Mans burden; / to you who thus succeed / In civilizing savage hordes / They owe a debt, indeed; (33 -36) Crosby questions the validity of the mission. He goes on to weigh the exchange between the Empire and the Natives. He adds: Concessions, pensions, salaries, / And priviledge and right, / with outstretched hands you raised to bless / Grab everything in sight. (37 -40). In terms of irony, not only is there a contrast between how much is given verses how much is taken, but, also of what is given verses what is taken. The natives receive a few limited handouts like agreements, benefits, and paychecks and, in exchange the Empire takes ownership of the natives land and naturual resources. Interpretively, Crosby demostrates this transaction as a falling leap by going from owning to owing; which is very much an uneven trade. Finally, he attacks the hypocrisy of using the art of writing to distort the issue and hide the true motive of the Empire. It is necessary to present the catalog of words Crosby uses to expose what he views as being socially, economically, and politically incorrect . Crosby concludes: Take up the White Mans burden, / And if your write in verse, / Flatter your Nations vices, / And strive to make them worse. / Then learn that if with pious words / you ornament each phrase, / In a world of canting hypocrites / This kind of business pays. (41 48) Fittingly, Crosby uses satirical irony to reveal the true motive of the insincere enthusiam that Crosby believes Kipling is showing for the Empires high ideals of pious goodness. Crosby is successful in presenting the single viewpoint of the Empires greed disguised as bringing civility to the uncivilized. In conclusion, the expert use of irony and symbol by both Kipling and Crosby prove to be excellent conveyors of the poets messages. Kiplings use of irony and symbol brillantly delivered two very contradictory positions. He lauds Imperialism by advocating that it is the responsibility of civilized nations to help to bring civilization to underdeveloped nations. He also decries the pride of thinking to be superior and being unfair to people perceived to be less finanically fortunate, not as socially advanced, and not as politically savvy. Like Kipling, Crosby employs irony and symbols to deliver his solo message. Crosbys message is that the Empire is hypocrital in its motive and that the gist of what they really wanted to do was camoflagued by missions to humanity, and described as helping to bring civilization to the uncivilized. Clearly, the poets use of irony and symbol shaped the understanding and interpretation of the poems intended meanings. The use of Irony and Symbol was so wel l executed, there remains no argument as to the value of these elements in both poems.