The Principle of Beneficence vs Patient Essays

The Principle of Beneficence vs Patient Essays The Principle of Beneficence vs Patient Paper The Principle of Beneficence vs Patient Paper ABSTRACT On the motion that â€Å"medical paternalism serves the patient best†, this essay reviews current arguments on medical paternalism vs. patient autonomy. Citing medico-ethical texts and journals and selected real-life applications like electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) and the advanced medical directive (AMD), the essay argues that medical paternalism cannot serve the patient best insofar as current debates limit themselves to â€Å"who† wields the decision-making power. Such debates side-step â€Å"what† the patient’s best interests are. The essay further argues through the case of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), and acupuncture in particular, that the current dominant Western school of thought excludes other forms of â€Å"alternative† treatment through medical paternalism. Singapore Med J 2002 Vol 43(3):148-151 N H S S Tan Second-year mass communication student at Ngee Ann Polytechnic Correspondence to: Noel Hidalgo Tan Suwi Siang Email: [emailprotected] pacific. net. sg Although probably not written by Hippocrates (c. 460 – c. 477 BC) himself, the Hippocratic Oath is one of the oldest, most binding code of conduct today. The oath expresses the aspirations of the physician, and sets the ethical precedent by spelling out the physician’s responsibilities to the patient and the medical profession. Today, the Hippocratic Oath has been adopted and adapted world-wide; all physicians take the oath in some form or another. In Singapore, the doctor who undertakes the Singapore Medical Council’s Physician’s Pledge promises to â€Å"make the health of my patient my first consideration† and â€Å"maintain due respect for human life† (pars. 4, 9). The primary concept behind the oath is the principle of beneficence, which is operationalised in the original oath as the resolve to serve â€Å"for the benefit of the sick according to (the physician’s) ability and judgement† (cited in Mappes DeGrazia, 1996; p. 59). The principle of beneficence, indeed the over-emphasis of it, also led to medical paternalism or the physician’s prerogative to act on his or her best judgement for the patient. R S Downie observed, â€Å"The pathology of beneficence is paternalism, or the tendency to decide for individuals what they ought to decide form themselves† (cited in 1996; p.5). More often than not, medical paternalism tends to focus more on the patient’s care and outcomes rather than the patient’s needs and rights. In recent years, medical paternalism has come under fire through the concept of patient autonomy, or the patient’s right to choose and refuse treatment. While the debate between autonomy and paternalism still remains unresolved, paternalists argue that â€Å"maximum patient benefit† can be achieved only when the doctor makes the final medical decision (Weiss, 1985; p. 184). The pro-autonomy stance maintains that â€Å"benevolent paternalism is considered inappropriate in a modern world where the standard for the client-professional relationship is more like a meeting between equals than like a father-child relationship† (Tuckett, Boulton, Olson Williams, cited in Nessa Malterud, 1998; p. 394). This essay argues that medical paternalism cannot serve the patient best insofar as current debates sidestep the principle of beneficence in favour of decision-making power and medical paternalism under the current dominant Western school of thought excludes other forms of treatment. Current debate surrounding paternalism has always been centred on the issues of autonomy and paternalism and reduced further into a power struggle between the doctor and patient. This polarisation of the decision-making power has distracted the medico-philosophical debate. Today’s traditional medical values like â€Å"pain is bad† and longer life is more desirable than a shorter one† are increasingly challenged. Still, do patient and physician both share common understanding of what is best for the patient? Paternalists would claim that physicians have a â€Å"medical tradition to serve the patient’s well-being†, with the prerogative to preserve life and thus have the patient’s best interests at heart (Mappes and DeGrazia, 1996; p. 52). Singapore Med J 2002 Vol 43(3) : 149 Far from paternalism understood as a dogmatic decision made by the physician, James Childress in his book â€Å"Who Shall Decide? † further expounds paternalism into multi-faceted dimensions. Pure paternalism intervenes on account of the welfare of a person, while impure paternalism intervenes because more than one person’s welfare is at stake. Restricted paternalism curbs a patient’s inherent tendencies and extended paternalism encompasses minimising risk in situations through restrictions. Positive paternalism promotes the patient’s good and negative paternalism seeks to prevent an existing harm. Soft paternalism appeals to the patient’s values and hard paternalism applies another’s value over the patient. Direct paternalism benefits the person who has been restricted and indirect paternalism benefits a person other than the one restricted. Whatever the case may be, the guiding principle of modern paternalism,† says Gary Weiss, â€Å"remains that the physician decides what is best for the patient and tries to follow that course of action† (1985; p. 184). That the physician determines ‘what is best’ is questionable. The medical profession’s back-to-basics Hippocratic prerogative is prone to strong medical paternalism, implying that the patient does not want or know his or her own personal good and conversely implying that the patient is to be given no choice other than the physician’s. Consequently, there is immense potential for abuse by giving the physician the final say. Actively, a paternalist physician may declare a person mentally unsound – and thus incompetent – because the patient refuses treatment. Passively, the physician can confound informed consent and obfuscate treatment alternatives. In some cases information can be misrepresented entirely, as John Breeding (2000) argues in his report on electroshock, or electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). He states that patients who sign up for ECT have no real choice â€Å"because electroshock psychiatrists deny or minimise its harmful effects† (p. 65). Breeding reports a â€Å"lack of efficacy† in the ECT procedure with â€Å"no lasting beneficial effects of ECT† and the â€Å"(physical) and mental debilitation for people who undergo this procedure†. There are, however, some justifications for paternalistic intervention, which generally entails situations where intervention outweighs the harm from non-intervention. The weak paternalistic approach is especially warranted to  prevent a person from posing a danger to oneself, or when the patient in question is a minor or suffers from impaired judgement due to illness. For example, in Dr Y M Lai and Dr S M Ko’s paper on the assessment of suicide risk, a paternalistic stand is seen where â€Å"accurate diagnosis and careful management of the acute psychiatric illness could significantly alter the suicide risk† (1999). Still, physicians might know for themselves what is best for the situation as they perceive it, but that knowledge does not necessarily translate to what may be best for the patient. Ruddick adds, â€Å"(Current) hospital specialists, it is said, rarely know their patient (or themselves) well enough to make this assumption without serious risk of ignorant arrogance† (1998; par. 5). Therefore while much debate has gone on about medical paternalism and patient autonomy, the definition on what serves the patient best remains unanswered, but the notion of medical paternalism continue to be redefined. On the other side of the argument, proponents of patient autonomy hold that the final say lies with the patient. â€Å"It is the patient’s life or health which is at stake, not the physician’s so it must be the patient, not the physician, who must be allowed to decide whether the game is worth the candle† (Matthews, 1986; p. 134). The notion of patient autonomy largely derives from philosophies of Immanuel Kant and John Stuart Mill, who, through different postulations, arrived at the same conclusion – that freedom of choice is paramount. Autonomy â€Å"asserts a right to noninterference and a correlative obligation not to restrain choice† (Pollard, 1993, p.797). Retroactively, the emergence of the idea of patient autonomy has slowly eroded the normative model of medical paternalism. Dr K O Lee and Dr T C Quah (1997) observe â€Å"(the) commercialisation and cost of medicine, the loss of absolutes in morality, indeed the dominance of pluralism such that ethical issues are discussed without firm foundations, these have all led to fewer patients (or their relatives) saying ‘Doctor, you do what you think is best Sir’. † (par. 3). Unlike the paternalist view that deems illness as an impediment to autonomy, the patient autonomy model, as Cassel asserts, sees the patient â€Å"simply as a well person with a disease, rather than as qualitatively different, not only physically but also socially, emotionally and even cognitively† (1978, p. 1675). Thus, proponents of patient autonomy rationalise, â€Å"Who better to determine what’s best for the patient than the patient themselves? † This shift in thinking has increasingly made patient autonomy the desirable standard for medical relationships. The advance medical directive (AMD), legislated in 1991 in America and 1996 in Singapore, reflects such a shift, albeit legal, towards providing power to patient choice. The AMD is a document 150 : 2002 Vol 43(3) Singapore Med J that â€Å"is basically designed to provide autonomy to patients to determine in advance their wish to die naturally and with dignity when death is imminent and when they lose their capacity to decide or communicate† (Agasthian, 1997; par. 1). There is, however, little consensus as to what autonomy entails. According to Thomas Shannon, autonomy has two elements: â€Å"First, there is the capacity to deliberate about a plan of action. One must be capable of examining alternatives and distinguishing between them. Second, one must have the capacity to put one’s plan into action. Autonomy includes the ability to actualise or carry out what one has decided† (1997; p. 24). Nessa and Maltrud (1998) say â€Å"[within] the biomedical tradition, patient autonomy implies a right to set limits for medical intervention† (p. 397). Pollard (1993) understands autonomy as â€Å"a person’s cognitive, psychological and emotional abilities to make rational decisions† (p. 797). With each definition, the interwoven faculties of personal liberty, voluntariness, being informed, and competence to engage in a plan of action appear. Philosophically, these faculties are subject, and subject autonomy, to varying degrees. This subjectivity begs the question, â€Å"What construes as a mentally competent patient? † How much would an illness impede a patient’s autonomy? How much autonomy does a person have with respect to his or her obligations to the community? Can a person ever have true and full access to information in order to make an informed decision? Criticism towards advocates of patient autonomy also point out that patients sometimes â€Å"choose immediate gratification over long-term benefits† (Weiss, 1985; p. 186). An exercise of autonomy may fulfil the patient’s expressed desire but not necessarily translate to serving the patient best, if at all. Even with the patient autonomy model, then, the question as to what serves the patient best goes unanswered and gives way to what the patient wants. To the extent that medical paternalism is discussed in relation with patient autonomy, current debates talk only about ‘who’ should determine the best interests of the patient but not ‘what’ the best interests of the patient should be. Thus, the principle of beneficence cannot be attained in both the minds of the physician or the patient. Where current debate about paternalism sidesteps beneficence as the motivation for paternalism, medical paternalism itself sidesteps questions of its own validity through the established dominant Western thinking. Eric Matthews argues that â€Å"paternalism rests on the claim that the goods which medicine pursues are determined by the medical profession rather than the patients who make uses of their service† (p. 135). In this argument, medical paternalism also determines the very medicine the medical profession uses and leaves the patient with little or no choice for ‘alternatives’. â€Å"Whether they agreed or not, physicians needed to become more knowledgeable about alternative regimes†, reports Eugene Taylor on the use of alternative therapies (2000; p. 33). Only in recent times, with the proliferation of information spurred by the advent of the Internet age has given an indication about how little the dominant Western medical school of thought knows about other existing and so-called ‘alternative’ healing therapies and are beginning to react. In America, the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicines’ (NCCAM) budget â€Å"exploded from $2 million in 1993 to $50 million in 1999† (Waltman, 2000; p. 39). Singapore is now looking into developing traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) â€Å"research and education to the tune of US$100 million† (Kao, 2001; p.3). Going with this positive trend, Dr. P H Feng (2000) surmised that someday patients will have â€Å"unlimited access to medical information† (p. 524). Despite the growing acceptance of alternative medical therapies, the Western medical profession also exacts paternalistic standards on alternative medicines. Take the example of TCM, of which studies in China have revived over the past few decades. A Singaporean report on TCM in 1995 reviewed â€Å"the standards of training and practice of TCM in Singapore to ensure a higher quality of TCM practice  (and) to safeguard patient interest and safety† (Traditional Chinese Medicine, 1995; par. 2, 3). Yet to demand that ‘alternative’ therapies undergo review under Western medical criteria is as laughable as it is paternalistic. Says Eugene Taylor, â€Å"Can we actually understand acupuncture without reading the Five Confucian Classics or The Yellow Emperor’s Classic on Traditional Chinese Medicine? Western practitioners would say we don’t need them if we have the scientific evidence; Chinese practitioners would consider this the answer of an uncultivated dog-faced barbarian† (p. 33). Ironically, while Western scientific method emerged from Cartesian thought in the 17 th century, Jeffrey Singer notes that the Chinese had â€Å"documented theories about circulation, pulse, and the heart over 4,000 years before European medicine had any concept about them† (2000; par. 3). Other regimes like homeopathy and aromatherapy have been in existence for centuries but are now deemed â€Å"alternative†, pseudonyms for â€Å"nonWestern†. This is paternalism at its worst because Singapore Med J 2002 Vol 43(3) : 151 so-called â€Å"alternative† therapies do not hold water, or are even oppressed by, a dominant Western medical standard. Wrote Angela Coulter, â€Å"Assumptions that doctor (or nurse) knows best, making decisions on behalf of patients without involving them and feeling threatened when patients have access to alternative sources of medical information these signs of paternalism should have no place in modern health care† (1999; p. 719). The principle of beneficence is furthermore stymied through this kind of medical paternalism – how can the medical profession presume to serve the patient best when it fails to acknowledge other therapies that work? The medical profession must begin to re-look itself. Thus far, solutions towards resolving the paternalism problem deal exclusively with advocating either paternalism, autonomy, or middle-road, shared decision patient-physician relationship models such as the one proposed by Elywn, Edwards, Gwyn and Grol. They propose â€Å"sharing the uncertainties about the outcomes of medical processes and exposing the fact that data are often unavailable or not known† (1999; p. 753). Again, proposed shared-decision solutions deal with co-responsibility of medical decisions, but the solutions do not determine the decision itself, and whether the decision serves the patient best. Indeed, a quantitative solution may be near impossible, such is the dynamics of any ethical issue. Medical paternalism, however, must be deconstructed as an issue by both the medical profession and the patient. To approach a resolution through the eyes of the medical profession only serves to perpetuate medical paternalism, albeit in another form, which would not serve the patient. Surmises R S Downie, â€Å"The antidote to paternalism, or an inappropriate excessive expression of beneficence is a sense of justice and honesty† (1996; p. 5). Medical practitioners then must also start recognising their own limitations as a healthcare provider and the limitations of knowledge in their own profession. It is a certain humility reflected in a physician’s comment during a study by Sullivan, Menapace and White (2001), â€Å"I’m not the God of this patient, just a technician with an education†. REFERENCES 1. Agasthian T. Advance directive – A surgical viewpoint. Singapore Medical Journal (Online serial), 1997; 38(4). Retrieved June 23, 2001 from the World Wide Web: sma. org. sg/smj/3804/articles/ 3804e2. htm 2. Breeding J. Electroshock and informed consent. The Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 2000; 40:65-79. 3. Cassel E. Therapeutic relationship: contemporary medical perspective. In W. Reich (Ed), Encyclopaedia of Ethics (p. 1675). New York: Macmillan. 1978. 4. Coulter A. Paternalism or partnership? British Medical Journal, 1999; 319:719-20. 5. Downie RS. Professional ethics and business ethics. In S. A. M. McLean (Ed. ), Contemporary Issues in Law, Medicine and Ethics. Vermont: Dartmouth. 1996. 6. Elwyn G, Edwards A, Gwyn R and Grol R. Towards a feasible model for shared decision making: focus group study with general practice registrars. British Medical Journal 1999; 319:753-6. 7. Feng PH. Medicine in the digital era – Opportunities and challenges. Singapore Medical Journal, 2000; 41:522-4. 8. Kao C. $175m plan for Chinese medicine. The Straits Times, 9 September 2001; p. 3. 9. Lai YM and Ko SM. What you need to know – Assessment of suicide risk. Singapore Medical Journal (Online serial), 1999; 40(5). Retrieved June 23, 2001 from the World Wide Web: http:// www. sma. org. sg/smj/4005/articles/4005me2. html 10. Lee KO and Quah TC. Living, dying, death and advance directives. Singapore Medical Journal (Online serial), 1997; 38(4). Retrieved June 23, 2001 from the World Wide Web: sma. org. sg/smj/3804/ articles/3804e1. htm 11. Mappes TA and DeGrazia D. Biomedical ethics (4th ed. ). New York: McGraw-Hill. 1996. 12. Matthews E. Can paternalism be modernised? Journal of Medical Ethics 1986; 12:133-5. 13. Nessa J and Malterud K. Tell me what’s wrong with me: a discourse analysis approach to the concept of patient autonomy. Journal of Medical Ethics, 1998; 24:394-400. 14. Pollard BJ. Autonomy and paternalism in medicine. The Medical Journal of Australia, 1993; 159:797-802. 15. Ruddick W. Medical Ethics (Online), 1998. Retrieved June 23, 2001 from the World Wide Web: nyu. edu/gsas/dept/philo/faculty/ ruddick/papers/medethics. html 16. Singer JA. Acupuncture, a brief introduction (Online), 2000. Retrieved September 8, 2001 from the World Wide Web: acupuncture. com/Acup/Acupuncture. htm 17. Singapore Medical Council Physician’s Pledge. (n. d. ). SMA Centre for Medical Ethics and Professionalism (Online). Retrieved June 23, 2001 from the World Wide Web: sma. org. sg/cmep/ medical_ethics/MEA2/MEA2A. html 18. Sullivan RJ, Menapace LW and White RM. Truth-telling and patient diagnoses. Journal of Medical Ethics, 2001; 27:192-7. 19. Taylor E. Mind-body medicine and alternative therapies at harvard: Is this the reintroduction of psychology into general medical practice? Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, 2000; 6(6):32-4. 20. Traditional Chinese Medicine. Ministry of Health (Online), 1995. Retrieved 8 September, 2001 from the World Wide Web: http:// www. gov. sg/moh/mohiss/tcm/tcmrpt. html 21. Waltman AB. Alternative medicine goes mainstream. Psychology Today, May/April 2000; 38-9. 22. Weiss GB. Paternalism modernised. Journal of Medical Ethics, 1985; 11:184-7.

Titanic Essay- the techniques used by James Cameron Essays

Titanic Essay- the techniques used by James Cameron Essays Titanic Essay- the techniques used by James Cameron Paper Titanic Essay- the techniques used by James Cameron Paper Essay Topic: Film For this film to be a success, James Cameron, the director had to modernise it. He had to include all the aspects of a hit film, along with the attraction towards a wide audience. This he achieved by incorporating the well-known story of the unsinkable ship with the new and hottest stars. In theory the older generation was intrigued to see how Cameron interpreted the story, and the younger generation wanted to see the latest actors. The directors objective was to produce a film, based on the true story that would appeal to all age groups, particularly the younger generation. So Cameron used Leonardo DiCaprio to play the role of Jack, a young American living life as it comes making his own luck. He chose Leo to play this part because he was the latest heartthrob of teenaged girls across the nations and would there fore attract a vast majority of the targeted audience, for the male population, Kate Winslet the girl next door was cast as the young, fresh and rich Rose. The combination of the two up and coming stars was a sure hit teamed with the theme of love. Strength and skills they had acquired during previous roles made the actors work well together to produce a convincing and moving relationship. However the story needed to keep the realism of the true event which took place in 1912 yet have enough action, excitement and romance to keep the target audience interested for the record three and a half hour film. The director achieved this by using many different techniques of lighting, sound effects and camera angles. By using many dramatic camera angles it is possible to involve the viewer in the scene as opposed to watching the film from a cinematic perspective. You are instantly drawn in to the scenery with the technique of panning. This is a wide shot of the scene, which slowly moves on a fixed point to allow the viewer to see the full atmosphere and action occurring around that point. Using different camera angles helps to create the affect of where the actor/ actress is. For example, to establish the background behind a character, a long shot is appropriate. This was used in such a scene as the opening view of the ship, because Cameron wanted to convey the true size of the masterpiece. However to get the most dramatic effect of action, a wide angle shot would work better because this will focus on the characters, and the mood of their surroundings. This was used when Jack is seen playing cards in the bar on the dockhands, with titanic visible through the window. Denotation and Conotation were also used to show the symbolism of the images, and what they suggest. The way in which Cameron managed to persuade the audience that they were within the scene, added emotion and realism to the production, concentrating on a particular subject at each time as not to lose the attention of the viewers. The use of romantic, slow calming music allowed the viewer to unknowingly become emotionally involved in the scenes. This, combined with the techniques used on the camera angles and the stunning computer graphics, made the whole film come together. Cameron kept an element of truth in the story by using Rose who was a real survivor from the sinking ship, but put the fire in to it by introducing a fictional character her lover, Jack. The shots and camera angles used presented a good example of denotation, conotation, wide angle and long shots. A long shot was used when Rose is in immense confusion about her life and decides to try and end it by jumping off the back of the ship one evening. The camera shot used to open this scene was a wide shot of Rose running away from the banquet at which she had been in an argument with her fianci. To show the full size of the ship Cameron used a panning wide angle shot. This is most effective because as the shot zooms in to where rose is situated on the half a mile long boat, you begin to grasp the vast size of the vessel in comparison with the tiny figure. As we follow Rose running from the middle of the ship, up and down stairs until she reaches the bow, and comes to an abrupt halt against railings, here a close up view of her is used to show how upset and out of breath she is which relates her to the audience because we understand her pain, emotionally and physically. As Rose decides what to do, we see through her perspective as she looks at the railings on the bow of the ship. Slow sad Irish music plays softly in the background, adding real empathy to her character. When Rose is hanging off the back of the ship, a close shot is again used from the perspective of Rose looking up at jacks face. This is used to show the strength and effort that Jack is putting into pulling Rose over the edge on to the safety of the decks. A similar camera angle is used from Jacks perspective, this time to show the fear and anguish in Roses face and the ferocious, churning and freezing water below her kicking legs. The traditional method of using foreground, middle ground and background to fool the viewer into believing an object is larger than it actually is, was used throughout the film along with the horizontal, wide screens and vertical shots to create atmosphere. Perhaps the most atmospheric device Cameron used was the music and sound effects, without which the film would not seem as intense, action packed or emotional. He used a wide variety of Irish and country music typical of the era in which the film is set to portray the large number of Irish passengers travelling in third class to America, to seek a better life there. Cameron wanted to show how strong this community was by convincing the audience that no matter how poor the conditions were on the third class decks, it was still possible to have fun. He did this by showing a scene in which Rose (a first class passenger) goes below decks to a third class passenger party as guest of Jack. She soon finds that there is no need for money to enjoy them self as the roar of the Irish jig and the lively atmosphere sweeps her into the mass of dancing bodies. The theme of the music is continued throughout the film but the tempo, style or rhythm is changed. Celine Dion had the hit single My heart will go on is famous for the scene in which Jack and Rose are standing on the front of the ship; Jack behind Rose holding out her arms to make her feel like she is flying. This signifying the bonding between the two lovers and their trust. The costumes also contributed towards the meaning of the film as they reflected class division in the era in which the disaster of Titanic took place. There was a pronounced division between first class and third class passengers. Therefore the difference between the main characters was very obvious Jack was third class and Rose was first class. The costumes were accurately researched for the wealthy people of that period. For example, the first class wore colourful bright and clean clothes, which were changed each day. They had such luxuries, as smart dresses, suits and maids to dress them, whereas the third class did not even own the soap to wash with and dressed in dirty drab torn clothes. The comparison between the two is very prominent when Rose joins the third class party below decks as she is in clean, clothing and the other passengers are in dark, melancholy colours. This would suggest Rose is better off than they are and perhaps brought up better, but this is proven not to be so when she joins the lads in a beer and proves she is not just an upper classed snob. James Cameron showed the differences between the classes continuously throughout the film from the opening scene of Jack and a friend gambling for their ticket on the ship compared to Rose arriving by motor car, well dressed with servants to carry every thing for her. Once on board the ship is divided in to different sections for the classes, third not allowed to enter 1st class areas. This is shown when a porter is walking a dog belonging to a first class passenger, and he takes it to the third class decks to let it go to the toilet. An Irish friend of Jacks makes the comment that it is typical that they get treated like that. Perhaps the worst comparison made between the classes is when the ship has hit the ice burg and is rapidly sinking. The lower decks are flooding and the third class passengers are locked down there to stop them from getting in the life boats before the first class passengers have got in. This is a sad prospect that humans could do that to one another. This is now open to debate by historians as to weather it really happened that way. Again Cameron used the key elements of a film angles, lighting and sound to make the sinking of the ship as realistic and horrific as possible. The viewer does not gain an idea of how huge the ship is until a long shot is used as the ship is going down. As all the life boats row away and people jump in to the water u can really see the true size of Titanic-the unsinkable ship of dreams. Cameron managed to link the lighting to the beats and thrills of the music building a climax and sense of fear and evasion. The cool lighting used in the scenes after the tragedy created a sad blue and cold atmosphere, which follows on to Rose, as an old lady, revisiting the memories. This created a stark contrast to her dream that night of revisiting the ship of dreams as a warm friendly glow is created with soft angelic lighting. The theme tune is slowed down and Rose appears, surrounded by her friends family and loved ones. A panning shot curves round the room in which she and Jack first met to reveal the smiling applauding faces. Soft lighting combined with the music symbolises happiness and purity suggesting that Rose, as an old lady fell asleep and died in her dreams that night, a happy contented woman, having returned the heart of the ocean.

What's the difference between greek theatre and roman theatre Essay

What's the difference between greek theatre and roman theatre - Essay Example Greek theatrics are considered to be a refined form of artistic expression, whereas Romans adopted it from the Greeks just for the sake of entertainment. For this reason, unlike the elaborate architectural designs of Greek theatres, Roman theatres were just temporary structures that were put up for a particular show and then taken down soon after (Walton & McDonald, 2007, p. 218). However, Roman did construct massive amphitheatres but those were primarily meant for gladiatorial activities and games. Roman theatres were largely 180 degrees and the orchestra was found in the seating area. Whereas, Greeks had open-air theatres that were built in the landscape, despite their simplicity the setting and stages were more elaborated decorated than that of the Romans and were slightly lower. The structure was 270 degrees and the entire theatre was more planned, with a clear demarcation of the areas allocated for the actors, audiences and the orchestra (Walton & McDonald, 2007, p. 136). All in all, the Greeks were incredibly serious about theatrics as a form of social expression, while Romans simply pandered to the demands of the audiences and focused just on making an act as entertaining as possible. As the elders feared that Roman pragmatism would be tarnished by Greek frivolity, the art form could not go beyond its superficial status. The perceptions of Theatrical Arts varied significantly between the Romans and the Greeks, which is the greatest difference between the two and forms the basis for all other dissimilarities in the production of their plays and the general architecture of the

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History and philosophy of International Baccalaureate programme - Essay Example The research also finds that there is need for further research regarding the efficacy and efficiency of the IBP versus those of ordinary educational programs. In the meritocratic world of today, where the quality of education is greatly valued, it seems important to evaluate the different systems of education in order to assure that the future generation gets the best education possible. With the effects of globalization on today’s world, whereby mobility is an essential factor in the work arena, finding an education system that can be validated internationally is of great importance. Many of the novel problems in the globalized world have been solved through the evolution of International Baccalaureate Program. The International Baccalaureate Program evolved to allow for the children of mobile parents worldwide to receive a good education. It was intended to enable students to qualify for universities of their choice and study in international schools. So, what started as a solution to a global problem was embraced worldwide because of the academic rigor and international education imparted thereby (Walker, 2004, p. 7). The International School of Geneva was founded in 1924 to meet the needs of the employees of the, now defunct, League of Nations. The school was the oldest international school in Geneva to survive the Second World War. Its inception was, indeed, a first step towards world harmony and, thus, peace. Its staff came from different countries; the school had to accommodate a diverse range of culture and also prepare the children for university education in their own countries (Peterson, 2005). Although, in the beginning, the idea ignited some of the post war idealists, due to low mobility it did not grow as it did after the Second World War. In 1951, the International Schools Association (ISA) was set up to help the growing number of international schools. One of the problems encountered by schools throughout the world was to

Build Environment Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Build Environment - Assignment Example Since there is no open space on both sides of the building, the structure can be insulated, steed aided, glass tinted with base insulators. Steel can be chosen for this building alongside timber and concrete work. Steel doesn't rust fast it is immune to creatures such as insects and termites, therefore, there less need for insecticides and pesticides. Steel is not combustible, and we can safely say that it is fireproof. Steel can withstand natural turbulence such as earthquakes, hurricanes and tornadoes. It has much earthing protection from lightning strikes. There would be less fear of the load bearing in placing interior walls because steel allows greater design in flexibility. In modern structures, the combination of steel and timber is a good choice. Steel framed buildings with glass panels and wood or timber would make a good combination to the conditions sited. Light framed structures of aluminium, steel and large glass panels are to be considered in this structure. Insulating concrete with the use of foam forms filled with concrete and structural insulated, foam panels faced with oriented strand board or (a good alternative) fibre cement, can both be used, as well as light gauge steel framing and the more detailed heavy-gauge steel framing. Because of its location, brick and block construction could be an option. Large glass panels are best for the front and rear side of the structure. Natur ally stained wood panels or danarra plywood is a good material for the woodworks of the building. Wood is a light material and it adds beauty when properly set. Aside from the use of the building for hotel and office spaces the location is most likely to be very suitable for commercial purposes. The ground floor of the building can be converted into commercial spaces. The office spaces can occupy the second floor up to the 10th floor. The hotel rooms would be on the 11th floor and up. A fire escape is to be located at the both ends of the building aside from a stairs that is to be build inside the building. The design of the stairs is one that goes around the elevator which is to be situated in the middle of the building. The front and back of the building will be covered with large glass panels. A separate comfort room for the male and female users are to be installed in every storey of the building. In providing a development of Fire Management Strategy for the building, a step by step guide to follow is recommended to assist them to comply with the requirements of Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005. A fire safety strategy is neede d to give satisfaction to the functional requirement of the building. The fire safety measures must have the adequacy of means to prevent fire. There must be early warnings by automatic detection. The standard means of escape must be provided. There is also the provision for smoke control and control of rate of fire growth. The standard of active measures for fire extinguishment and control, the facilities to assist the fire service, training of staff in fire safety and fire routines, the continued control under other legislation to maintain and test fires safety measures and management of fire safety are considered. In understanding the nature of service installations from the builder's perspective, the importance of building services must be identified together with the methods used for fire protection. The (building regulations 2000), Approved Document B is the guidance on how to meet the

Art history blog Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Art history blog - Assignment Example Romanticism is demonstrated through emotions of attachment and nostalgia. The second painting of the Sea of Ice by Casper David between 1823 and 1825 demonstrates emotions of renunciation and awe towards nature. The painting features the destructive aspect of nature and the hopelessness of man. The third painting Raft of Medusa by Theodore Gericault is of an actual event that took place and Gericault attempts to evoke feelings of empathy by bringing out the emotions that were felt by the people of the raft after they were abandoned by their ship in the middle of the sea. 3. The White Horse and the Sea of Ice deal with the same theme but from different perspectives. They capture different aspects of the theme of man and nature. The White Horse expresses man’s attachment to nature while the Sea of Ice expresses man’s inability to tame nature. The Raft of Medusa on the other hand deals with the theme of desperation caused by man upon his fellow beings. Becoming Modern 1. a ) Capitalism created modern by ensuring that people specialize in what they can be able to produce best, and make money by selling the surplus so that they can use the money to buy what they do not produce. This is contrary to the classics period where people produced all they needed. b) Urban Culture created modern through the emergence of totally new ways of living. Towns grew bigger, people bought almost all of their needs, and the gap between the rich and the poor widened. c) Technological advances changed the way people lived and the way people perceived each other and in doing so created modern. d) Secularism creates modern by ensuring that people were less concerned with religious matter but were more concerned with their own emotions and feelings’ e) Optimism created modern by promoting even more change because people were able to perceive change positively. 2. The audience of art changed from the rich and learned to the middle class and learned but with different out look. Artists were therefore more influenced to depict aspects such as landscape that would be understood by the new audience. These changes made modern more dynamic because people readily embraced and influenced change. 3. Avant Garde was modern artist’s movement that was daring and radical and steered away from the traditional art techniques and influences. A Burial at Ornans 1. The painting A Burial at Ornans by Gustave Courbet is antithetical to modernism beca 2. use it depicts a traditional aspect of burial with all the religious ceremony accompanying it. One of the characteristics of modernism is secularism. 3. Gustave chose the topic to bring about the aspect of realism away from the conventional expectations where artists painted on particular issues for instance politics. Gustave depicted a funeral where people went to mourn but he was also aiming at showing the individual’s contemplation of the aspect of mortality. Some people are mourning; others are distrac ted, while others like the children are oblivious of the events. However, all these people are brought together to show heroism of the deceased. 4. The art audience at the Paris Salon in 1850 was astounded at the painting because it totally contradicted their expectations. Gustave chose to represent the funeral as it was rather than engage in subjects such as politics or religion. Impressionism: Art and Modernity 1. The term impression had been coined by those

Reasons Behind Colonial Settlements in North America Essay Example for Free

Reasons Behind Colonial Settlements in North America Essay As a whole, I believe economic development had a larger impact on colonial settlement than religious concerns, but this varies with the individual colonies. Each colony had something different to offer England and a different motive for settling. New England came about because the Puritans and Separatists wanted a place to worship free the original Church of England. Virginia, on the other hand, was established at first as a trade colony and base for gold and precious metal expeditions. The Maryland colony was founded in order to further the cultivation of certain crops like tobacco. Religion was by no means pushed away in the colonies. It was a strong and meaningful force for almost all colonists; it Just wasnt always their driving force. England held economic control over all colonies and did not let anything get in the way of that. Virginia became an agricultural settlement that brought large amounts of money to Britain. Religion was important and valued higher than everything except money. The colony of Maryland was given by Charles I to George Calvert, whose son (Cecilius Calvert) allowed freedom of religion to all Christian settlers in the colony. That was the biggest difference between Maryland and Virginia, who both became agricultural societies fairly quickly. Indentured servants were shipped to work the fields, which created a populous community and a strong economy. New England was created for more than Just a place for the Puritans and Separatists to worship freely. Because of American influence in English lifestyle (mainly food), the population doubled, leading to high inflation, a very unbalanced wealth distribution, and a plummeting economy. As a result of overpopulation and poverty, people were drawn to North America. Among the attracted people were Puritans and Separatists, who could both escape poverty and start a new colony based off of their own religious beliefs. These people were rebels in the eyes of the English hierarchy, and therefore received much less funding and support from the government. New England evolved as more of a family friendly colony than the Chesapeake Bay colonies, which were more business and economically focused. The Chesapeake Bay colonies were established by the English government for the sole purpose of economic development, while New England was founded by religious leaders escaping English intolerance. The Massachusetts Bay Company was moved to New England, along with the addition of three thousand Puritans by the year of 1643. The area sprouted busy seaports in coastal towns and farms in agricultural. As the population grew, New England became more financially inclined. Compared to other European societies, English colonies were as equally everyday life centered as economically centered. They brought their culture, religion, and everyday life to North America. New England and the Chesapeake Bay colonies had different personalities and goals when it came to economic, religious, and settling beliefs. The economy was a focus point for both colonies, but especially the Chesapeake bay colonies, while religion was the founder of New England.